Reversible aminal gel compositions, methods, and use in three-dimensional printing

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods for producing a reversible hemiaminal or aminal gel composition for use in 3D printing, the method including preparing a liquid precursor composition, the liquid precursor composition operable to remain in a first liquid state at about room temperature, where the liquid precursor composition comprises: an organic amine composition; an aldehyde composition; a polar aprotic organic solvent; and a carbon nanomaterial; heating the liquid precursor composition to transition from the liquid state to a gel state; transitioning the gel state to a second liquid state; and 3D printing a solid carbon nanomaterial object comprising a solid printed gel from the second liquid state with a pre-determined orientation for the carbon nanomaterial.

PRIORITY

This application is a non-provisional application claiming priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/958,013, filed Jan. 7 2020, the entirety of which is incorporated here by reference.

BACKGROUND Field

Embodiments of the disclosure relate to oil and gas recovery. In particular, embodiments of the disclosure relate to gel compositions useful in downhole applications.

Description of the Related Art

Hemiaminal and aminal polymers have been reported to undergo pH responsive phase change and network rearrangements giving them promise as recyclable plastics, self-healing polymers, and stimulus-responsive materials. In addition to pH responsiveness, hemiaminal gels also show dynamics through aminal/thiol-exchange and substitution with alkyl phosphines.

Constitutionally dynamic materials (CDMs) are classified by their utilization of reversible covalent in addition to or alternative to non-covalent bonding such that they are able to undergo modifications to their constitutions through the dissociation and re-association of their constituent building blocks. This attribute helps allow for accessing triggered release, reversible gels, and self-healing composites. The monomeric units of CDMs are brought together through reversible molecular bonding or supramolecular bonding (which is inherently reversible).

CDMs generated by the reversible covalent association of organic and organometallic building blocks are marked by stronger bonding than their supramolecular counterparts and have the additional flexibility of access to a greater variety of dynamic chemical reactions. An assortment of different reversible reactions has been investigated in this class of materials. These include reversible hydrazone formation, reversible Schiff base formation, reversible aminal formation, Diels-Alder condensations, disulfide exchange, dithioacetal exchange, dynamic boronic ester formation, olefin metathesis, and metal-ligand association.

Both constitutional and motional covalent dynamic chemistries have been demonstrated through reversible imine formation and the transformation of imines into aminals. Experiments have demonstrated that the complexation of certain transition metals to condensation products of polyamines and aldehydes can result in a switch from the aminal condensation product to the Schiff base. The transformative potential of certain metals in the presence of aminals could permit for networked polymers endowed with uniquely dynamic rheological and dielectric properties. These properties are of certain utility in the drilling, construction, and remediation of oil and gas producing wells.

In oil field services, completion fluids can be defined as those fluids used to flush potentially formation damaging materials from the wellbore after drilling and before casing perforation. Damaging materials include drilling fluid additives, such as fluid loss agents, on the formation face, solid cuttings and clays from formations entrained in the drilling fluid and deposited on the face of a formation, and filter cake on the formation left from the drilling fluid. The filter cake typically contains solid materials from drilling fluid additive residue from the drilling fluid along with the filter base (depending on the oil or water base of the fluid). Completion fluids control well pressure, prevent the collapse of tubing from overpressure, and provide fluid loss control. Fluid loss control agents can be added to the bulk completion fluid or supplied as a pill. Typical fluid loss pills are oil-soluble resins, calcium carbonate, and ground salt. These material are known to cause formation damage, which can significantly reduce production levels by decreasing the permeability of formations.

Gravel packing is used to control sand migration from the formation into the wellbore in both open hole and perforated casing situations. In the case of casing gravel pack completion, it is inserted at a specified location within a perforated wellbore. Conventional gravel packing uses a fine sand or gravel in a fluid viscosified or gelled with a polymer such as uncrosslinked hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl guar, xanthan gum, or similar. The thickener thickens or gels the fluid to allow the sand to pack the perforations before it compacts. After packing, the fluids or gels are then thinned or broken and recovered in order to allow the settlement of the sand to properly pack the annulus. The gels are converted to fluids by breakers, which are often chemical agents.

The gravel pack that remains is designed to be highly permeable but also blocks any formation sand from passing into the wellbore and only allows for the passage of fluids. If a thickening agent is not used or if it thins too early the result can be premature ‘sand-out’, which is caused by bridging of the settled particles across the tubing. A viscosified fluid or gel with an infinite gravel settling rate is required in highly deviated wells. This assures that the gravel carried to the production zone in a highly deviated wellbore will not settle out. Cellulose derivatives are preferred viscosifiers as they render only a limited amount of water insoluble particles or residues when they degrade. These polymers are known to degrade at temperatures exceeding 200° F. Therefore, effective reversible thickeners and gelling agents are of certain utility in well sections exceeding 200° F.

Workover fluids are typically used in cleaning and repairing old wells to increase production. Completion, workover, and kill fluids are typically designed to prevent fluid from the formation intrusion into the wellbore while preventing wellbore fluid leakoff. Leakoff is the loss of fluid from the wellbore into the formation. Fluid leakoff is known to cause formation damage, which can potentially reduce hydrocarbon recovery. Formation damage can be manifested as reduced permeability of the formation or the reaction of an aqueous fluid with minerals, such as clays, in the formation.

During perforation, it is necessary to inhibit fluids from entering and damaging the formation. Fluid loss agents typically used to meet these ends are water insoluble, oil soluble waxes, soaps, gels, and various other types of polymers. Another type of treatment fluid is comprised of finely ground solids dispersed in a fluid. The solids can be guar-coated silica flour, crushed oyster shells, crushed limestone, or rock salt.

To prevent fluid leakoff, lost circulation materials are often added to wellbore construction fluids. These additives are designed with the purpose of preventing the communication of wellbore fluids with the formation. Conventional lost circulation materials may be inapplicable to water sensitive formations or formations with low fracture gradients. Cross-linked polymer gels have shown certain advantages over conventional completion, kill, and workover fluid additives because of their enhanced fluid loss control in high permeability formations. The difficulty with many gels is that formation damage can be caused by the gels as they are often difficult to remove. If the gels are made fully reversible with an effective gel breaker, this formation damage issue may no longer be problematic in the use of gels in these kinds of fluids.

Problems in drilling and completion practices include well blowouts caused by the escape of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), other gases, and light hydrocarbons. These events lead to serious costs and safety hazards to field personnel and well operators. The conventional method to mitigate H₂S-related events is to disperse solid particles such as iron oxide or zinc carbonate in aqueous brine weighted fluids to react with H₂S. The difficulty with this practice is that the brines are no longer free of solids as their intended purpose would be so as to avoid potential formation damage. Non-aqueous fluids, such as N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), are known to have a high capacity for H₂S absorption. Fluids based with NMP have been previously proposed for use in wells with H₂S to minimize well blowouts for this property.

SUMMARY

The disclosure presents reversible aminal gels produced from the condensation of aldehydes and amines, which in some embodiments have application to hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs where smart, stimulus responsive materials are sought. In example embodiments, compositions described here exhibit dynamic responsivity to certain divalent and trivalent metal salts. Examples show the utility of metals in the modification of the kinetics and thermodynamics of hemiaminal and aminal inclusive constitutionally dynamic materials (CDMs). The introduction of metal salts to certain systems provides a handle to exploit phase change dynamics and mechanical properties of these dynamic materials.

Constitutionally dynamic hemiaminal gels produced from the condensation of aldehydes and amines to aminals can be well suited to the harsh environments of hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs. In some embodiments, the gels break down when exposed to low pH conditions, for example, with Lewis or Bronsted acids. In some embodiments, at neutral pH and greater, they are strong, highly resilient gels with a greater melting point, in some embodiments greater than about 200° C. When a low value pH fluid or appropriate metal salt composition (having a metal ion with a valence 3, 4, or 5 (described throughout alternatively as M(+III), M(+IV), or M(+V)), optionally a transition metal complex, is in contact with certain embodiments of the gels, a condensation reaction is reversed and a complex, optionally involving the metal ion, and optionally a transition metal ion, forms where the gel is transformed into a liquid. Aminal gels can have applications as work-over and completion pills (for example kill pills), sand control agents, conformance gels, cement additives, and shale inhibitors in water-based drilling muds.

Precise control of fluid rheologies and liquid-solid phase transitions underlie the chemical foundation for safe and effective oil well construction, production, and remediation. Constitutionally dynamic materials (CDMs) in wellbore operations offer the possibility to broaden the performance window of many upstream chemical processes in the oil and gas industry. Materials that are constitutionally dynamic utilize reversible covalent bonding in addition to or alternative to non-covalent bonding such that the dynamic material undergoes continuous changes to its constitution through the dissociation and re-association of its constituent building blocks. These attributes, in part, open up a wide variety of possibilities for accessing triggered additive release, reversible gels, and self-healing composites.

CDMs are a class of dynamic materials that comprise both molecular and supramolecular polymers. The monomeric units of these kinds of polymers are brought together with reversible molecular (covalent) bonding or supramolecular bonding (which is inherently reversible). CDMs generated by the reversible covalent association of organic and organometallic building blocks are marked by stronger bonding than their supramolecular counterparts and have the additional flexibility of access to a greater variety of dynamic chemical reactions.

Presently, chemicals used to perform wellbore operations are based upon constitutionally static structures (non-reversible), which in the case of a sealant limit the ability of the material to self-heal. The inclusion of self-healing sealants or dynamic, stimulus responsive additives in cements could provide unique advantages in oil well cements or resin sealants where static materials cannot deliver.

Furthermore, processes used to clean a wellbore during completion processes can require reversibly gelled liquids. This reversible phase transformation is of particular utility in the process of perforating; for example, if the losses of completion brine are greater, gels are deployed to serve as a secondary fluid system, placed across the perforated interval to seal perforations against fluid loss to the formation. Dynamic chemical systems offer new methods for “breaking gels” and the possibility for widening the performance window of reversible gels deployed in completions.

The compositions described here have been developed in the interest of instructing the dynamics of aminals with metals, a hemiaminal polymer gel, produced through the condensation of a multifunctional amine and formaldehyde. The hemiaminal gel described converts into a liquid through the addition of a trivalent metal. Surprisingly, the resulting organometallic liquid can then be thermally transformed with a controlled and modifiable gelation time into a different kind of gel with enhanced physical properties. This gel can then be transformed back into a liquid through the addition of a reactive compound such as a thiol or phosphine.

The fluid and gel compositions described here may be used in the oil field through methodologies described for completions fluids, workover fluids, packer fluids, primary oil well cementing, and remedial oil well cementing. The gels described are chemically reversible and demonstrate high thermal stability (up to about 200° C.), which exceeds many currently used gels in wellbore construction fluids. The reversibility of the gels limits formation damage.

The gels can be formed with a controllable, tunable gel-time. They can be converted into gels in-situ, downhole or made into gels prior to pumping into the well. When made into gels prior to placement, they can be rendered into gel particles which can serve as reversible fluid loss additive gels. They can be used directly in a drilling fluid, a completion fluid, workover fluid, or gravel packer or administrated as a fluid loss pill.

The gels described are produced, in some embodiments, from triazine compounds which serve as a second layer of protection to H₂S in the case of a well blowout. Triazines are organic ringed molecules which have also been used for H₂S mitigation. H₂S incorporates into the ring structure of triazines. The base of the gels, in some embodiments, is NMP which provides a primary layer of protection to H₂S by absorbing the gas.

The gels can also be used in a method of remedial cementing where high thermal stability is sought to repair damaged cement seals and micro-annuli. The controllable gel-time of the materials can enable the use of these materials in conformance gels and as primary sealants in wellbore construction.

Therefore as disclosed, embodiments include a well treatment composition for use in a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir comprising a reversible aminal gel composition. The reversible aminal gel composition includes a liquid precursor composition, the liquid precursor composition operable to remain in a liquid state at about room temperature, where the liquid precursor composition comprises: an organic amine composition; an aldehyde composition; a polar aprotic organic solvent; and a metal salt composition with valence 3, 4, or 5. The liquid precursor composition transitions from the liquid state to a gel state responsive to an increase in temperature from the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir. The gel state is stable in the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir at a temperature similar to a temperature of the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, and the gel state is operable to return to the liquid state responsive to a change in the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir selected from the group consisting of: a decrease in pH in the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, an addition of excess metal salt composition in the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises a primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of from about 280 to about 100,000 Daltons (Da). In other embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises a primary amine of polyethylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of about 200 to about 100,000 Da. Still in other embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises a primary amine of an aromatic system.

In certain embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises an aminated polyethylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of about 200 to about 100,000 Da, a primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of about 280 to about 100,000 Da, and oxydianiline. Still other embodiments further comprise a hemiaminal or aminal gel formed at least in part by exchange of an initially-condensed amine, the initially-condensed amine selected from the group consisting of: alkylethylenediamine, benzylethylenediamine, phenylethylene diamine, and mixtures thereof. The initially-condensed amine can be exchanged with a composition selected from the group consisting of polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, oxydianiline, and mixtures thereof.

In certain embodiments, the aldehyde composition comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: formaldehyde, paraformaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde, and phenyl acetate-HMTA (hexamethylenetetramine). In some embodiments, the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: N-alkylpyrrolidone, N,N′-dialkylformamide, and dialkylsulfoxide. Still in other embodiments, the metal salt composition with valence 3, 4, or 5 comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of: iron(III) and aluminum(III). In other embodiments, the addition of a metal salt is operable to modify the mechanical properties of the gel to render a self-healing material. Self-healing can refer to the spontaneous formation of new bonds when old bonds are broken within a material. Still yet other embodiments further comprise a gel time accelerating additive comprising sodium sulfite. Still in other embodiments, the gel state comprises triazine-based molecules.

In certain embodiments, the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises N-vinyl pyrrolidone and is operable to be polymerized through a radical initialized reaction. In other embodiments of the composition, N-vinyl pyrrolidone is copolymerized with a second monomer thereby modifying hydrophilicity of a gel matrix and altering a release profile of cargo upon time delayed or triggered release. In some other embodiments, the second monomer comprises N-butyl acrylate. Still in yet other embodiments, N-vinyl pyrrolidone is polymerized as either a homopolymer or a copolymer through radical initiation with potassium persulfate. While in other embodiments, N-vinyl pyrrolidone is polymerized as either a homopolymer or a copolymer through radical initiation with ultraviolet (UV) light.

In some embodiments of the composition, N-vinyl pyrrolidone is polymerized as either a homopolymer or a copolymer in a photosensitized gel through radical initiation with light of a wavelength greater than about 350 nanometers (nm). In some embodiments, the gel state is stable between about 110° C. and about 250° C. In other embodiments, a molar ratio of the organic amine composition to the aldehyde composition to the polar aprotic organic solvent is between about 1:2:1 and about 1:200:500. Still other embodiments further comprise delayed release capsules comprising a compound selected from the group consisting of: acidic solution and a metal salt composition.

Additionally disclosed is a method for introducing a reversible aminal gel composition into a wellbore in a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir. The method includes the steps of: injecting a reversible aminal gel composition into the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, the reversible aminal gel composition comprising: a liquid precursor composition, the liquid precursor composition operable to remain in a liquid state at about room temperature, where the liquid precursor composition comprises: an organic amine composition; an aldehyde composition; a polar aprotic organic solvent; and a metal salt composition with valence 3, 4, or 5; and allowing the liquid precursor composition to transition from the liquid state to a gel state responsive to an increase in temperature from the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir. The method further includes the step of returning the gel state to the liquid state by changing a property in the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir selected from the group consisting of: pH in the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, an amount of metal salt composition in the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises the step of adding a gel time accelerating additive comprising sodium sulfite. In some embodiments, the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises N-vinyl pyrrolidone and is operable to be polymerized through a radical initialized reaction. In some embodiments, N-vinyl pyrrolidone is copolymerized with a second polymer thereby modifying hydrophilicity of a gel matrix and altering a release profile of cargo upon time delayed or triggered release. In certain embodiments, the second polymer comprises N-butyl acrylate. Still in other embodiments, the method further comprises the step of polymerizing N-vinyl pyrrolidone as either a homopolymer or a copolymer through radical initiation with potassium persulfate.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises the step of polymerizing N-vinyl pyrrolidone as either a homopolymer or a copolymer through radical initiation with UV light. In some embodiments, the method further comprises the step of polymerizing N-vinyl pyrrolidone as either a homopolymer or a copolymer in a photosensitized gel through radical initiation with light of a wavelength greater than 350 nm. In other embodiments, the method further comprises the step of maintaining a stable gel state between about 100° C. and about 250° C. Still in other embodiments, the method further comprises the step of adjusting a rate of cargo release from the reversible aminal gel composition, where the reversible aminal gel composition comprises a cargo to carry out a wellbore function selected from the group consisting of: modifying viscosity of a wellbore fluid; initiating a cement set; and modifying yield point of a wellbore fluid.

In some embodiments, a molar ratio of the organic amine composition to the aldehyde composition to the polar aprotic organic solvent is between about 1:2:1 and about 1:200:500. Still in other embodiments, the method further comprises the step of adding delayed release capsules comprising a compound selected from the group consisting of: acidic solution and a metal salt composition with valence 3, 4, or 5. Some embodiments include the step of adjusting a ratio of components in the liquid precursor composition to tune a temperature at which the reversible aminal gel composition reverses to the liquid state. Other embodiments include the step of adjusting a ratio of components in the liquid precursor composition to tune a pH at which the reversible aminal gel composition reverses to the liquid state. Still other embodiments include the step of adjusting a ratio of components in the liquid precursor composition to modify the concentration of excess metal salt required to transform the reversible aminal gel composition into the liquid state.

In some embodiments of the method, the method includes the step of adjusting a ratio of components in the liquid precursor composition to alter the amount of time required for a liquid hemiaminal gel form to transform into a greater melting point gel form. Some embodiments includes the step of adjusting a ratio of components in the liquid precursor composition to tune physical properties of the gel state by exchange and reduction in an amount of polar aprotic organic solvent required for producing a homogenous gel. Still in other embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises a tris primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of between about 280 and about 100,000 Da. In some embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises a bis primary amine of polyethylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of between about 200 and about 100,000 Da.

In some embodiments of the method, the aldehyde composition comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: formaldehyde, paraformaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde, and phenyl acetate-HMTA. Still in other embodiments, the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: N-alkylpyrrolidone, N,N′-dialkylformamide, and dialkylsulfoxide. In some embodiments, the metal salt composition comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of: iron(III) and aluminum(III). Other embodiments of the method include the step of adding a gel time accelerating additive comprising sodium sulfite to the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir. In some embodiments, the gel state comprises triazine-based molecules.

Still other embodiments further comprise the step of maintaining a stable gel state between about 110° C. and about 250° C. In certain embodiments, a molar ratio of the organic amine composition to the aldehyde composition to the polar aprotic organic solvent is between about 1:2:1 and about 1:200:500. Still in other embodiments, the step of adding delayed release capsules to the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir comprising a compound selected from the group consisting of: acidic solution and a metal salt composition is included in the method.

Additionally disclosed here are methods for producing a reversible hemiaminal or aminal gel composition for use in 3D printing, one method including preparing a liquid precursor composition, the liquid precursor composition operable to remain in a first liquid state at about room temperature, where the liquid precursor composition comprises: an organic amine composition; an aldehyde composition; a polar aprotic organic solvent; and a carbon nanomaterial; heating the liquid precursor composition to transition from the first liquid state to a gel state; transitioning the gel state to a second liquid state; and 3D printing a solid carbon nanomaterial object comprising a solid printed gel from the second liquid state with a pre-determined orientation for the carbon nanomaterial.

In some embodiments, the step of transitioning the gel state to the second liquid state comprises hot-melting the gel state to a liquid hot-melt for use in a reservoir of a 3D printer. In other embodiments, the step of 3D printing the solid carbon nanomaterial comprises printing the second liquid state to a cooled substrate material. Still in certain other embodiments, the step of transitioning the gel state to the second liquid state comprises adding a metal salt composition to the gel state. In certain embodiments, the metal salt composition comprises a metal of valence 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. In yet other embodiments, the metal salt composition comprises at least one component selected from the group consisting of: aluminum chloride, ferrous chloride, and ferric chloride.

In some embodiments, the step of 3D printing the solid carbon nanomaterial includes heating the second liquid state. In other embodiments, the method includes the step of returning the solid printed gel to a removable liquid to be separated from the solid carbon nanomaterial object. In certain embodiments, the step of returning the solid printed gel to a removable liquid comprises the use of at least one component selected from the group consisting of: water; hydrochloric acid; an alkyl thiol compound; an alkylphosphine compound; N-methyl pyrrolidone (“NMP”); N-vinyl pyrrolidone (“NVP”); dimethylformamide (“DMF”); and dimethylsulfoxide (“DMSO”).

Still in other embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises a tris primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of between about 280 and about 100,000 Da. In certain embodiments, the organic amine composition comprises a bis primary amine of polyethylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of between about 200 and about 100,000 Da. Still in other embodiments, the aldehyde composition comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: formaldehyde, paraformaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde, phenyl acetate-HMTA, and mixtures thereof. In some embodiments of the method, the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: N-alkylpyrrolidone, N,N′-dialkylformamide, dialkylsulfoxide, and mixtures thereof. Still in other embodiments, the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone.

In some embodiments of the method, the metal salt composition comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of: iron(III), aluminum(III), and mixtures thereof. In other embodiments, the solid carbon nanomaterial object comprising a solid printed gel comprises triazine-based molecules.

In still yet other embodiments, a molar ratio of the organic amine composition to the aldehyde composition to the polar aprotic organic solvent is between about 1:2:1 and about 1:200:500. In certain embodiments, the metal salt is selected from the group consisting of: zinc bromide, calcium chloride dihydrate, calcium chloride hexahydrate, sodium bromide, calcium bromide, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the metal salt comprises sodium bromide. In still other embodiments, the solid carbon nanomaterial object comprises a percolation network.

The solid carbon nanomaterial object can be selected from the group consisting of: an integrated circuit, a sensor element, an antenna, a high-surface-area catalyst scaffold, and an aerogel. In some embodiments, the carbon nanomaterial comprises a carbon nanomaterial selected from the group consisting of: multi-wall carbon nanotubes, boron nitride nanotubes, graphene, graphite, single-wall carbon nanotubes, double-wall carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanohorns, glass fibers, alkali resistive glass fibers, and any combination of the foregoing. In some embodiments of the method, the step of heating occurs at between about 50° C. and about 100° C.

Certain embodiments further include the step of diluting the liquid precursor composition with an aqueous composition comprising water to form a dilute liquid precursor composition. Still other embodiments include the step of preparing a dilute liquid precursor composition, the dilute liquid precursor composition operable to remain in a first liquid state at about room temperature, where the dilute liquid precursor composition comprises: an organic amine composition; an aldehyde composition; a polar aprotic organic solvent; and an aqueous composition comprising water. In some embodiments, the aqueous composition comprising water is between about 5 wt. % and about 50 wt. % of the dilute liquid precursor composition. Still in other embodiments, the aqueous composition comprising water is between about 5 wt. % and about 30 wt. % of the dilute liquid precursor composition. In other embodiments, the aqueous composition comprising water is between about 5 wt. % and about 15 wt. % of the dilute liquid precursor composition. Still in other embodiments, the step of 3D printing includes co-extrusion of a first material prepared from the liquid precursor composition and a second material prepared from the dilute liquid precursor composition.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present disclosure will become better understood with regard to the following descriptions, claims, and accompanying drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the drawings illustrate only several embodiments of the disclosure and are therefore not to be considered limiting of the disclosure's scope as it can admit to other equally effective embodiments.

FIG. 1A shows a partial reaction scheme of the mechanism for the condensation of formaldehyde with organic amines to produce a series of aminals and hemiaminals.

FIG. 1B shows a partial reaction scheme of the mechanism for the condensation of formaldehyde with organic amines to produce a series of aminals and hemiaminals, along with a greater melting point triazine-based gel (H).

FIG. 2 shows a reaction scheme mechanism for the transformation of the transitory products from FIGS. 1A and 1B.

FIG. 3 shows a graphic representation for certain possible phase changes during the formation of gels of the present disclosure.

FIG. 4 shows a reaction scheme for the formation of a stimulus responsive low melting point aminal gel based on aminal chemistry.

FIG. 5 shows a reaction scheme intermediate step for the formation of a greater melting point gel in the presence of iron(III).

FIG. 6 shows a reaction scheme for one proposed formation of a greater temperature melting point triazine-based gel in the presence of iron(III) after exposure to 150° C. heating.

FIG. 7 shows a reaction scheme for one proposed method to reverse the formation of a greater temperature melting point triazine-based gel in the presence of excess iron(III).

FIG. 8A shows a pictorial representation of Experiment II-F, in which disintegration of aluminum triazine greater temperature melting point gel was tested.

FIG. 8B shows a pictorial representation of Experiment II-F, in which disintegration of aluminum triazine greater temperature melting point gel was tested.

FIG. 8C shows a pictorial representation of Experiment II-F, in which disintegration of aluminum triazine greater temperature melting point gel was tested.

FIG. 9 is a graph showing the storage modulus versus temperature for gels formed with differing molar ratios of JEFFAMINE® to N-methyl pyrrolidone (“NMP”), according to experiments using embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 is a reaction schematic diagram showing equilibrium dynamics of certain metalloaminal gels.

FIG. 11 is a reaction schematic diagram showing molecular structures which predominate in certain gel formation processes of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12 is a graph showing the time dependence of rheology for the gel formulation described in Table 2 at various temperatures.

FIG. 13 is a graph showing the viscosity versus time for a sample gel with 24.4 molecular equivalents of sodium sulfite (to JEFFAMINE®) and for a sample gel without sodium sulfite.

FIG. 14 is a graph showing the effect of increasing aluminum chloride content on gel time at 68° C.

FIG. 15 is a graph showing the effect of increasing ferric ammonium sulfate concentration on gel time at 69° C.

FIG. 16 is a graph plotting the relative gel times for hemiaminal gels complexed with aluminum(III) and iron(III).

FIG. 17 is a graph showing storage modulus and loss modulus results at 72° C. and 115° C. for the results of Experiment II-E.

FIG. 18 is a graph showing gelation time of a 65:5 gel with 1.2 equivalents (eq.) of AlCl₃ by showing increase in modulus over time.

FIG. 19 is a graph showing the cross-over point A of the storage modulus and the loss modulus at about 120° C. for the sample of FIG. 18.

FIG. 20 is a graph showing time resolved ultraviolet-visible (“UV/VIS”) spectra for the release of LOMAR® D and the disintegration of a hemiaminal gel in water. After 2 hours, the gel had completely disintegrated and was no longer visible in the liquid.

FIG. 21 is a graph showing time resolved UV/VIS spectra for the release of LOMAR® D and the disintegration of a hemiaminal gel in NMP.

FIG. 22 is a graph showing time resolved UV/VIS spectra for the release of LOMAR® D and the disintegration of a hemiaminal gel in NMP with AlCl₃.

FIG. 23 is a graph showing time resolved UV/VIS spectra for the release profile for an NVP (“N-vinyl pyrrolidone”)/N-butyl acrylate polymer-hemiaminal system in water.

FIG. 24 is a graph showing the melting point trend as a function of amine:aldehyde ratio for hemiaminal gels of the present disclosure.

FIG. 25A is a graph showing an amplitude sweep of sample A-1 from General Chemical Method II.

FIG. 25B is a graph showing an amplitude sweep of sample A-2 from General Chemical Method II.

FIG. 25C is a graph showing an amplitude sweep of sample A-3 from General Chemical Method II.

FIG. 25D is a graph showing an amplitude sweep of sample A-4 from General Chemical Method II.

FIG. 25E is a graph showing stabilization of gel rheological properties after temperature stabilization at 25° C. for sample A-1.

FIG. 25F is a graph showing stabilization of gel rheological properties after temperature stabilization at 25° C. for sample A-2.

FIG. 25G is a graph showing stabilization of gel rheological properties after temperature stabilization at 25° C. for sample A-3.

FIG. 25H is a graph showing stabilization of gel rheological properties after temperature stabilization at 25° C. for sample A-4.

FIG. 26A is a graph showing phase shift angle versus shear strain for sample A-5 alone, sample A-5 with 0.2 grams of Mohr's salt, and sample A-5 with 0.8 grams of Mohr's salt.

FIG. 26B is a graph showing phase shift angle versus shear strain for sample A-3 alone and sample A-3 with iron(II).

FIG. 27A is a pictorial representation of the addition of a trivalent metal salt, ferric ammonium sulfate, to samples A-1 through A-5.

FIG. 27B is a pictorial representation of the addition of a trivalent metal salt, ferric ammonium sulfate, to samples A-1 through A-5.

FIG. 28A is a pictorial representation of gel sample A-1 becoming a liquid after reaction with aluminum chloride hexahydrate.

FIG. 28B is a pictorial representation of gel sample A-1 returning to a gel state after being heated to 70° C.

FIG. 28C is a pictorial representation of gel sample A-1 returning to a liquid state after the addition of phosphine in NMP to the gel in FIG. 28B.

FIG. 29A shows the results of a small amplitude oscillatory rheometry experiment in which different amounts of aluminum chloride were added to the same gel composition.

FIG. 29B shows the results of a small amplitude oscillatory rheometry experiment in which different amounts of aluminum chloride were added to the same gel composition, and the resulting gel time for the organometallic liquid at 70° C. was recorded. Increasing amounts of aluminum chloride increase the gel time.

FIG. 30 shows a reaction scheme for a reversible gel, optionally for use in situ as a kill pill in a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir.

FIG. 31 is a graph showing gelation time for certain reversible gels of the present disclosure at 70° C., 100° C., and 150° F., while maintained at 3.4 Megapascal (MPa) pressure.

FIG. 32 is a graph showing gelation time for certain reversible gels of the present disclosure at 20 MPa, 35 MPa, and 60 MPa, while maintained at 70° C.

FIG. 33 shows a core-flood set-up for demonstrating the ability of tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) or NMP/TCEP to serve as a gel breaker for a 65-5 metal-salt-stabilized thermodynamic gel.

FIG. 34 is a graph showing the results of testing of the gel breaking ability of TCEP in a Grace 9100 Core Flow apparatus, shown in FIG. 33.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

So that the manner in which the features and advantages of the embodiments of compositions, systems, and methods of reversible aminal gels, as well as others, which will become apparent, may be understood in more detail, a more particular description of the embodiments of the present disclosure briefly summarized previously may be had by reference to the embodiments thereof, which are illustrated in the appended drawings, which form a part of this specification. It is to be noted, however, that the drawings illustrate only various embodiments of the disclosure and are therefore not to be considered limiting of the present disclosure's scope, as it may include other effective embodiments as well.

Some embodiments include varying the relative quantity of a polar aprotic organic solvent component (such as N-methyl pyrrolidone (“NMP”), N-vinyl pyrrolidone (“NVP”), dimethylformamide (“DMF”), dimethylsulfoxide (“DMSO”), or similar polar aprotic organic solvents or mixtures of solvents) to adjust the melting point of a gel. Other embodiments include modifying the structure of an amine precursor to the aminal or hemiaminal gel to tune the melting point of the gel. The melting point of a greater temperature melting point gel of the present disclosure can be between about 50° C. and about 100° C., between about 75° C. and about 150° C., between about 100° C. and about 175° C., between about 125° C. and about 200° C., and between about 150° C. and about 250° C.

In certain embodiments, heating of organometallic fluids results in the formation of a second type of gel with a greater melting point and different mechanical properties. In the disclosure, an organometallic fluid is defined as any fluid in which the organic components bind with a metallic component. Gel formation times can be regulated by changes in temperature and through the addition of reducing agents such as sodium sulfite. Organometallic gels can be transformed back into a fluid by further addition of an M(+III), in addition to or alternative to a decrease in pH.

Chemistries have been developed and are disclosed that enable dynamic, stimulus responsive gels. In some embodiments, a hemiaminal gel, produced through the condensation of a polyamine and an aldehyde, such as formaldehyde or paraformaldehyde (containing some percentage of formaldehyde), can be converted into a liquid through the addition of a trivalent metal. The resulting organometallic liquid can then be thermally transformed with a controlled and modifiable gel time into a different kind of gel with enhanced physical properties. This gel can then be transformed back into a liquid through the addition of excess solvent used to produce the gel along with heat. Certain chemistries described in this disclosure may have application to completion fluids where breakable gels are required, to self-healing composites for zonal isolation, and to oil well cements where delayed and controlled release of additives is sought.

Hemiaminal gels can be transformed into liquids through the addition of trivalent metals, such as aluminum or iron. The resulting organometallic liquid can be referred to as a metalloaminal gel and can be transformed into a different gel with unique physical properties through heating. The gel time for this transformation can be controlled and modified as needed by adjusting the amount of trivalent metal in the liquid or through the addition of an accelerator such as sodium sulfite. Aluminum chloride, in some embodiments, acts as both an accelerator to gel formation, catalyzing formation of a triazine complex, and as a retarder by stabilizing reactants prior to the triazine product.

Without being bound by any theory or principle, the action of aluminum chloride is believed to occur because a trivalent metal (or “M(+III)”) stabilizes the transition state and lessens the activation energy for the ring closure of product G to product H in FIG. 1B (discussed further with regard to FIG. 1B as follows). An M(+III) also stabilizes a liquid precursor by binding to any one of the structures from A to F in FIGS. 1A and 1B, and thereby lessens the energy of the precursor materials relative to the ring-closed triazine. This stabilization retards the formation of product H because the relative activation energy required is increased by the lessening of the free energies of the structures responsible for the liquid state.

In some embodiments, ferric ammonium sulfate does not accelerate the formation of a triazine (product H in FIG. 1B, also referred to as a trisubstituted hexahydrotriazine) as effectively as aluminum chloride. The addition of increasing amounts of ferric ammonium sulfate to solution leads to a decrease in the rate of formation of triazine. This may occur through the same mechanism as the retardation of the product formation in the case of aluminum.

In some embodiments, a hemiaminal gel can be made with a melting point exceeding about 78° C. The hemiaminal gel is easily broken down to a liquid with the addition of aluminum chloride either as a solid or as a solution in water or NMP. The liquid then gives reliable gel times to the formation of a triazine-based gel. At about 110° C., this triazine-based gel has a greater melting point than the hemiaminal gel. In some embodiments, a triazine-containing gel has a melting point greater than about 110° C., and in other embodiments, a triazine-containing gel has a melting point greater than about 200° C. Stirring a reaction product with heat and excess solvent (NMP) eventually transforms a triazine-containing gel back to a liquid. Addition of an acid, such as hydrochloric acid, can also transform a greater melting point triazine-based gel back to a liquid by a reduction in pH.

In some embodiments, metals introduced to the hemiaminal/aminal system alter the dynamics of gel formation. The use of a metal salt composition, in addition to or alternative to transition metals, in certain systems enables the rendering of greater melting point gels for the use of the disclosed chemistry in a wide variety of well conditions. Some embodiments include the use of an available JEFFAMINE® product as aminated polyethers in the hemiaminal/aminal gel systems described. Other embodiments include the use of aromatic amines such as oxydianiline (“ODA”). In some embodiments, aldehyde alternatives can be used in addition to or alternative to formaldehyde and paraformaldehyde, such as phenol formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde, and phenyl acetate-HMTA. In some embodiments, the reversible gels of the present disclosure are used as diversion materials in fracturing applications in hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs.

In embodiments of the disclosure, useful aminated polyethers (including aminated polyethylene glycols and aminated polypropylene glycols) can be branched or straight chained. Some embodiments include polyalkylene ethers such as polypropylenes, polypropylene oxides, polybutylenes, polybutylene oxides, polyethyleneimines, and polyethylene oxides. Alternatives to aminated polyalkylene ethers include aromatic polyamines such as oxydianiline, diaminobenzene, diaminonapthalene, and aminated pyrene. Other alternatives to aminated polyalkylene ethers include aminated graphene, aminated carbon fibers, and amine functionalized nanoparticles (such as ZrO₂, SiO₂, TiO₂, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, single-wall carbon nanotubes, multi-wall carbon nanotubes, carbon nanohorns, and single-wall carbon nanotubes).

Gels of the present disclosure may be reinforced with carbon fibers, glass fibers, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, silica fume, silica particles, or other particulates or nanoparticulates.

In certain embodiments, the addition of a divalent metal, such as iron(II), results in the modification of the mechanical properties of the gels. These modifications can include imparting self-healing properties into the gel such that when the gel is broken or cut, the gel can re-mend itself when the two broken gel components are brought into physical contact with one another.

In other embodiments, the gels serve as stimulus responsive containers that when laden with cargo and in the presence of an appropriate stimulus can release their contents to the surrounding environment over a pre-determined or specified time. This environment could be a solid, liquid, or gas environment. In this way, the timed release of chemical additives may be achieved through the controlled break down of cargo-laden gels of hemiaminal or aminal composition at controllable melting points.

In certain embodiments, a solvent or solvent mixture can be modified to alter the release profile of the cargo. For instance, N-vinyl pyrrolidone (“NVP”) can be used as a solvent and co-polymerized with N-butylacrylate in the production of a gel. In this way, while the organoamines are condensing with formaldehyde, NVP polymerizes with N-butylacrylate. This cross-linked web of what would otherwise be the solvent in the gel serves to reduce the permeability and responsiveness of the gel to cargo release. In some embodiments, the radical polymerization of the pyrrolidone co-polymer may be actuated with radical initiators such as potassium persulfate. In other embodiments, the radical polymerization reaction may be initiated with UV light. In other embodiments, the radical polymerization reaction may be initiated with visible or near-infrared (“NIR”) light through photosensitization of the gel to the appropriate wavelength of the light.

As disclosed, embodiments include a gel produced through the condensation of an aldehyde and an organic amine where the addition of a trivalent metal results in the transition of the material to a liquid. Other embodiments include the conversion of this liquid into a gel through heating. Other embodiments include the reconversion of this second/thermodynamic gel to a liquid through combination with a polar aprotic solvent.

In other embodiments, the hemiaminal or aminal gel is formed at least in part by exchange of the amine from a previously formed hemiaminal or aminal gel composition. The initially-condensed amine can be selected from the group consisting of: alkylethylenediamine, benzylethylenediamine, phenylethylene diamine, and mixtures thereof. This initial amine is exchanged with an aminated polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, or other polyalkylene glycol.

Certain dynamic gels disclosed here are produced through a condensation of an aldehyde, such as formaldehyde or paraformaldehyde, with an organic amine. Organic amines include aliphatic and aromatic aminated polymers. Certain mechanisms for this reaction are illustrated in FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 2. In the exemplified condensation reaction, product H is the thermodynamic product. The other reaction products A-G are kinetic products and are present in the pre-equilibrium reaction product in varying degrees. The concentration distribution of kinetic products can be shifted by a change in pH or through the addition of a molecule that can act as a receptor for any of the reaction products, A through H depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B.

When a molecule binds to any one of the reaction products, it affects the free energy of the complex and changes the equilibria and activation energies of the formaldehyde/amine condensations. The presence of a different component can then be amplified relative to the others. For example, product A could be amplified over product G. One outcome of reaction schemes shown in FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 2 is that the physical properties (such as mechanical strength and melting point) of a gel or resin produced from these dynamic building blocks can be altered when in the presence of a chemical stimulus.

Experimental Methods and Results

In FIGS. 1A and 1B, a reaction scheme is provided of the mechanism for the condensation of formaldehyde with organic amines to produce a series of aminals and hemiaminals. FIG. 2 shows a reaction scheme mechanism of how the transitory products from FIGS. 1A and 1B transform into and from one another. Certain example solvents that have been tested for the chemistries described throughout the disclosure are N-methylpyrrolidone (“NMP”), N,N′-dimethylformamide (“DMF”), and dimethylsulfoxide (“DMSO”). In other embodiments, other polar aprotic organic solvents or combinations of solvents could be selected by one of ordinary skill in the art. N-methyl pyrrolidone, paraformaldehyde, sodium sulfite, aluminum chloride hexahydrate, and ferric ammonium sulfate dodecahydrate were purchased from Fisher Scientific Co. LLC. JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was obtained from Huntsman International LLC.

Referring now to FIG. 3, a graphic representation is shown for certain possible phase changes during the formation of gels of the present disclosure. As related to FIGS. 1A and 1B, in FIG. 3 Gel I corresponds to a gel, such as reaction product G in FIG. 1B, produced by the reaction of an organic amine and an aldehyde, such as paraformaldehyde or formaldehyde. As is shown generally in FIG. 3, Gel I, or the reaction product G in FIG. 1B, can be further modified by a metal salt composition M(+III) and heat to produce Gel II, or reaction product H in FIG. 1B, which itself can be returned to a liquid form, shown as Liquid II (see also FIG. 10).

In some embodiments, the gels represented by Gel II in FIG. 3 are solids at mildly acidic pH, neutral pH, and greater pH (in basic solution), and the gels can become a liquid at low pH (in acidic solution), or when excess iron, metal salt composition, or transition metal complexes, are added to them. For example, solid gels could be removed from a well by adding acid or excess transition metal complexes or metal salt compositions with valence 3, 4, or 5. The gels represented by Gel II in FIG. 3 and reaction product H in FIG. 1B can be greater melting point triazine-based gels, optionally complexed with a trivalent metal from a metal salt composition with valence 3, 4, or 5.

FIG. 4 shows a reaction scheme for the formation of a stimulus responsive aminal gel based on aminal chemistry. In FIG. 4, I represents JEFFAMINE®, II represents formaldehyde, III represents NMP, IV represents an initial aminal gel (without any substantial triazine ring formation), and H₂O represents excess water. NMP is a solvent. In the reaction scheme of FIG. 4, a low melting point gel IV is formed, which becomes a liquid when heated to about 50° C.

In applications, such as conformance gels, where long-term solutions are sought to shut off water and gas zones of hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs, gels may be obtained by mixing of JEFFAMINE® (I) with formaldehyde (II) and N-methylpyrrolidone (III) (see FIG. 4) to produce a gel with strong resilient properties. In order to meet the requirements of greater-temperature, hydrocarbon-producing well and reservoir conditions (greater than about 100° C.), the melting point of aminal gels can be increased by heating the material in the presence of metal salt compositions with metal ions having a valence 3, 4, or 5 (also referred to as M(+III), M(+IV), or M(+V), respectively), optionally transition metal compounds, such as an iron(III) compound.

In some embodiments, 1.1 molar equivalents of iron(III) to JEFFAMINE® is sufficient to convert aminal gels to free flowing liquids at room temperature. In some embodiments, an optimal molar ratio for the formation of the greater melting point temperature triazine-based gels is 1:5.4:250 of JEFFAMINE® T5000:Paraformaldehyde:NMP. JEFFAMINE® T-5000 polyetheramine is a trifunctional primary amine of approximately 5,000 Da molecular weight. It is a clear, almost colorless, viscous, liquid product, and is produced by Huntsman International LLC. Unless specified otherwise in context, molecular weight values in this disclosure refer to weight average molecular weights. In FIGS. 4 and 5 in JEFFAMINE® (I), x+y+z is about equal to 85, in some embodiments.

Referring now to FIG. 5, a reaction scheme intermediate step is shown for the formation of a greater melting point gel in the presence of iron(III). In FIG. 5, I represents JEFFAMINE®, II represents formaldehyde, III represents NMP, and V represents an organometallic intermediary compound. When iron(III) is added to the hemiaminal gel scheme in FIG. 4 (shown by FIG. 5), the gel transitions to a solution at room temperature shown by organometallic intermediary compound V in FIG. 5. If a small amount of iron(III) is used to break the initial low melting point gel (IV), then when the solution is later heated to 150° C., a greater melting point gel reforms (VI) (as shown in FIG. 6).

Referring now to FIG. 6, a reaction scheme is shown for one proposed formation of a greater temperature melting point gel in the presence of iron(III) after exposure to 150° C. heating. In FIG. 6, V represents the organometallic intermediary compound from FIG. 5, II represents formaldehyde, III represents NMP, and VI represents a greater melting point triazine-based gel. This gel, represented by VI, has a substantially greater melting point than the initial hemiaminal gel, represented by IV in FIG. 4. Without being bound by any theory or principle, it is believed that some other species are formed on heating (for some of the material in the gel, a triazine-based structure). A greater melting point is observed in the gel VI, greater than about 200° C.

When 1.4 equivalents (to JEFFAMINE®) of FeCl₃ are added to the neat gel IV represented in FIG. 4, and the solution is heated to 150° C. for 20 minutes as shown in FIG. 6, a color change is observed from bright red to a deep, dark red. One result of the heating step is that the gel reforms as a greater melting point gel. While the melting point of the hemiaminal gel (initial gel IV) was about 50° C., the melting point of the greater melting point gel VI exceeds the boiling point of the NMP solvent, where the boiling point of NMP solvent is greater than about 200° C. In some embodiments of the greater melting point gel VI, the melting point exceeds about 200° C., and in other embodiments, the melting point exceeds about 100° C. It is believed one contributing factor to the physical property change of the gel could correspond to the formation of a triazine core in some of the species comprising the gel, optionally complexed with the metal of the metal salt (see also FIG. 10).

Gels derived from the chemistries of the present disclosure are constitutionally dynamic and based on reversible covalent chemistry. While present in environments at mildly acidic pH, neutral pH, and greater pH (alkaline or basic environments), they are strong gels. If a Bronsted or Lewis acid such as concentrated hydrochloric acid or iron trichloride in excess is added to the greater melting point triazine-based gels, they transform themselves into thin fluids. This property can be useful when applying this technology as workover or kill pills. When in the process of perforating a wellbore in a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, if the losses of the completion brine are greater, these gels could serve as a secondary fluid system (for temporary fluid loss control) placed across the perforated interval to seal perforations against fluid loss to the formation. The gels can then be removed through treatment with an acid once the completion process is finished. Experiments have also shown that when excess iron(III) is added to greater melting point gel networks, the network breaks down. The proposed reaction scheme is shown in FIG. 7.

Referring now to FIG. 7, a reaction scheme is shown for one proposed method to reverse the formation of a greater temperature melting point gel in the presence of excess iron(III). When excess iron(III) is added to the greater melting point gel VI in the presence of NMP and water, the structure breaks down to a solution. Similarly, concentrated hydrochloric acid also breaks the greater melting point gel VI and a liquid fluid is formed. In embodiments of the present disclosure therefore, reversible greater melting point gels are obtainable to meet the temperature requirements for gels in downhole environments of hydrocarbon-bearing formations.

When placed in 28% HCl for 1 hour at 90° C., the greater melting point gel disappeared, as the products likely return to their starting materials in solution. Similarly, when 50% by mass of FeCl₃ was added to the dark red gel and heated to 90° C., the gel became a thin liquid. This indicates that the addition of excess iron(III) can shift the equilibrium to favor structure V in FIGS. 5-7.

Gel Concentration Experiment I

The experiment described in this section is referred to as Gel Concentration Experiment I throughout the disclosure. To investigate the influence of the concentration of paraformaldehyde and JEFFAMINE® condensation product in NMP on the melting point and rheology of gels, oscillatory shear experiments were performed in an Anton Paar rheometer. The gels that were studied all had the same molar ratio of JEFFAMINE® to paraformaldehyde (1:5.4) but all differed in the molar ratio of NMP to JEFFAMINE®. The molar ratio of JEFFAMINE® to NMP varied from 1:63 to 1:315. For all of the gels, NMP and paraformaldehyde were mixed at 60° C. for 40 minutes. JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was then added to the solution and stirred for 30 minutes. The formulations of the gels are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Gel formulations for Gel Concentration Experiment I. Material Molar Ratio Mass (grams (g)) Moles Paraformaldehyde 5.4 0.13 0.00433 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 1 4.0 0.0008 N-Methyl pyrrolidone 63, 5, 0.050, 189, 315 15, 25 0.15, 0.25

The gels formulated from Table 1 were heated to 90° C. past their melting points. Then, as free flowing liquids, the solutions were poured into the rheometer cell of the Anton Paar device, and the temperature of the cell was ramped up while monitoring G′ and G″ at 1 Hertz (Hz) and 1% amplitude. This enables the determination of the gel melting points. The ramp rates were 5.9, 1.5, 0.38° Centigrade/minute (° C./min) for samples with a 63, 189, and 315 molar ratio of NMP to JEFFAMINE® T-5000, respectively.

Experiment II

Gel Time Experiments for the Transformation of Gels from Hemiaminal to Triazine-Based Gels with Tri-Aminated Polypropylene Glycols

The formulations that follow in Tables 2 through 6 (Experiments II-A, B, C, D, and E) were prepared following a general method which is described as follows. The gels were synthesized through the addition JEFFAMINE® T-5000 to paraformaldehyde in NMP. JEFFAMINE® T-5000 is a tris primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of 5000 Da. The gel formed from the condensation of paraformaldehyde and JEFFAMINE® T-5000 in NMP is broken down through the addition of an iron(III) or aluminum(III) complex. In these experiments, the organometallic liquid is then heated. The heating leads to the formation of gels with different physical properties than the initial gels formed prior to the addition of M(+III).

For all of the gels tested in Experiments II-A, B, C, and D, NMP and paraformaldehyde were mixed at 60° C. for 40 minutes. JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was then added to the solution and stirred for 30 minutes. The liquid was then removed from the heating bath and allowed to cool to room temperature. After the hemiaminal gel had formed, the metal salt (also referred to as “M(+III)”) was added. The gel was then sliced up with a spatula to increase the surface area available for metal complexation. The gel was digested into a liquid over a period of a few days at room temperature through the addition of an M(+III) salt to the gel.

Gel times were determined for the formulations described in Tables 2 through 5 with a Brookfield DV2T rheometer with an LV-04 spindle. The rheometer was set to measure viscosity at 12 rotations per minute (rpm) as a function of time. The samples were heated to various temperatures in oil baths. The temperatures were specified with Fann temperature controllers.

In Experiment II-A, hemiaminal gel samples were treated with iron(III) to become liquids and were then separately heated to 55° C., 75° C., 80° C., and 87° C. The gel times were measured, or in other words the time periods to re-form a greater melting point gel were measured. The formulation for the gel samples studied in Experiment II-A is presented in Table 2. FIG. 12 is a graph showing the time dependence of rheology for the gel formulation described in Table 2 at various temperatures. As shown by FIG. 12, with greater heating applied, greater melting point gels formed more quickly.

TABLE 2 Formulation for gel samples in Experiment II-A. Molecular Material Mass (grams) Moles Equivalents Ammonium iron(III) sulfate 7.5 0.0156 1.2 Paraformaldehyde 2.08 0.0693 5.4 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 64.0 0.0128 1 N-Methylpyrrolidone 82.4 (80 0.831 64.9 milliliters (mL))

In Experiment II-B, a gel time accelerating additive, sodium sulfite, was tested. Tests were performed to assess the possibility of accelerating the gel formation with an additive. The gel formulation for the samples in Experiment II-B (using sodium sulfite) is presented in Table 3. The sample was heated to 70° C.

TABLE 3 Formulation for gel samples in Experiment II-B. Molecular Material Mass (grams) Moles Equivalents Ammonium iron(III) sulfate 1.72 0.00357 1.1 Paraformaldehyde 0.52 0.0173 5.4 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 16 0.0032 1.0 N-Methylpyrrolidone 82.4 (80 mL) 0.831 260 Sodium Sulfite 9.8 0.07808 24.4

In Experiment II-C, a demonstration of the effect of aluminum chloride on gel time was carried out. As shown in the formulation in Table 4, increasing amounts of aluminum chloride were added to the 65:5 NMP:paraformaldehyde hemiaminal gel. The resulting liquid was then heated to 68° C. and the gel time was measured. As used throughout the disclosure, “65:5” refers to a molar ratio of about 65 NMP to about 5 paraformaldehyde.

TABLE 4 Formulations for gel samples in Experiment II-C. Material Molar Ratio Mass (grams) Moles Paraformaldehyde 5.4 2.08 0.0692 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 1 64.0 0.0128 N-Methylpyrrolidone 64.9 82.4 0.831 Aluminum Chloride 1.2, 4.0, 6.8 3.8, 12.7, 21.6 0.0145 Hexahydrate

In Experiment II-D, the effect of ferric ammonium sulfate as a catalyst and a retarder for triazine ring closure was tested. The effect of iron(III) on gel time is observed in this experiment. Similar to experiment II-C, where the effect of aluminum(III) was observed, increasing amounts of iron(III) are added to the hemiaminal gel as shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Formulations for gel samples in Experiment II-D. Material Molar Ratio Mass (grams) Moles Paraformaldehyde 5.4 2.08 0.0692 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 1 64.0 0.0128 N-Methylpyrrolidone 64.9 82.4 0.831 Ferric Ammonium Sulfate 1.1, 1.5, 6.8, 9.25, 0.0192 1.9, 5.2 11.7, 32.1

Experiment II-E compared the effect of aluminum(III) on the relative gel conversion rate of the hemiaminal structure to the triazine structure. Rheologies in Experiment II-E were measured with a Grace Instrument M5600 HPHT rheometer in oscillatory shear mode (at 1 Hz and 10% strain). The formulations that were prepared were based upon the hemiaminal gel described in Table 6. The gel was prepared according to the standard procedure described for experiment II-A. Two samples were prepared for this gel. The first gel sample was heated in the M5600 rheometer to 115° C., and the gel time was determined. Then, 1.2 equivalents (to JEFFAMINE®) of aluminum chloride were added to the second sample in order to produce a room temperature liquid from the sample. It was then heated to 78° C., and then the gel time was recorded in the M5600 rheometer.

TABLE 6 Formulations for gel in Experiment II-E. Material Molar Ratio Mass (grams) Moles Paraformaldehyde 5.4 2.08 0.0693 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 1 64 0.0128 N-Methylpyrrolidone 64.9 82.4 0.831

In Experiment II-F, disintegration of aluminum triazine greater temperature melting point gel was tested. The aluminum triazine gel formed from experiment II-C (Table 4) with 1.2 equivalents of aluminum chloride was tested for reversibility. In this case, 2.45 grams of the aluminum triazine greater temperature melting point gel was added to 40 mL of NMP. The material was heated to 50° C. and stirred. The sample was stirred at 90° C. over the weekend for about 4 days.

Referring now to FIGS. 8A-C, a pictorial representation is provided of Experiment II-F, in which disintegration of aluminum triazine greater temperature melting point gel was tested. The aluminum triazine gel was placed into a glass vial equipped with a magnetic stir bar, shown in FIG. 8A. 38 mL of NMP was added to the vial, shown in FIG. 8B. The solution was stirred for 4 days at 90° C. After about 4 days' time, the gel was no longer present and the liquid solution turned a dark brown/red color, shown in FIG. 8C.

The experiments described help explain the nature of the gel formation dynamics. In the experiments described, a water insoluble tris-amino polypropylene glycol was used as the condensing amine, paraformaldehyde was used as the electrophile, and NMP was used as the solvent. When the hemiaminal gel (see structure G in FIG. 1B) produced from the condensation is heated to greater than its melting point for an extended period of time, the gel converts into a different kind of gel with a greater melting point and lesser storage modulus than the previous gel. Without being bound to any theory or principle, it is believed that the triazine core of the modified gel can be responsible, in part, for the greater melting point gels (see structure H in FIG. 1B).

For the initial low melting point gels prepared in Gel Concentration Experiment I, the gel melting points varied from between about 55° C. to about 79° C. When the ramp rate for the gel is decreased, a different profile is observed, and it appears that the gel (JEFFAMINE® T-5000:NMP::1:189) does not lose mechanical properties as anticipated for a melting gel. This is one indication of a chemical transformation occurring. The gel prior to heating is a kinetic gel (likely to be predominately structure G in FIG. 1B). If it is heated for long enough and at greater enough temperature, it can transform itself into the thermodynamic greater melting point triazine-based gel (structure H in FIG. 1B).

The rheological profile of the gels tested in Gel Concentration Experiment I reveal that decreasing the amount of NMP in a given hemiaminal gel increases the melting point of the gel (see FIG. 9 and Table 7). The storage modulus of the gel also changes with the amount of NMP. The loss modulus decreases with a decrease in the relative quantity of NMP while the storage modulus of the hemiaminal gel increases. This indicates that the stiffness of the gel is greater at higher concentrations of organic amine and aldehyde in the polar aprotic solvent.

TABLE 7 Certain physical properties of the gels described in Table 1. NMP:JEFFAMINE ® Storage Modulus/Loss Ratio Melting Point Modulus (Pa) at 25° C.  63:1 77-79° C. 1077 189:1 66-67° C. 104.9/0.108 315:1 55-57° C.  92.4/0.274

Referring now to FIG. 9, a graph is provided showing the storage modulus versus temperature for gels with differing molar ratios of JEFFAMINE® to NMP, according to experiments of embodiments in the present disclosure. The molar ratio of JEFFAMINE® to paraformaldehyde in all the gels presented is 1:5.4. The amount of NMP is variable. The ratio of JEFFAMINE® to NMP varies from 1:63 to 1:315.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, it is believed, without being bound by any theory or principle, that the triazine structure can be arrived at by other pathways. For example, when an M(+III) compound, such as ferric chloride or aluminum chloride, with an M(+III) ion is added to a hemiaminal gel, the gel is transformed into a liquid. After heating the liquid for a certain period of time, a gel is also formed. The formed gel is believed to be comprised of the triazine (aminal) core structure with complexation to the metal (see Gel II from Liquid II in FIG. 10).

Referring now to FIG. 10, a reaction schematic diagram is provided showing equilibrium dynamics of certain metalloaminal gels. A description of the effect of M(+III) is presented in FIG. 10. The breaking of Gel I occurs, in part, because of the coordination of the CDM and M(+III) to form Liquid II. The coordination occurs because a component from the equilibrium shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B that is not covalently networked as a gel is amplified. Without being bound by any theory or principle, it is believed the coordination of the CDM and M(+III) is one way in which Gel I is transformed from a solid to Liquid II.

The melting point of a 65:5 gel with the addition of 1.1 equivalents of AlCl₃ is about 110° C., while the melting point in the absence of the aluminum chloride is about 74° C. Interestingly, when a metal (II) compound, such as ferrous ammonium sulfate, is added to a hemiaminal gel (low melting point gel), the gel is not transformed into a liquid. The material remains as a gel but the mechanical properties are altered. The gel becomes more self-healing. M(+III) compounds are generally better Lewis acids than metal(II) compounds. Without being bound by any theory or principle, it is believed that the greater Lewis acidity of M(+III) compounds provides a component for what is required to break the C—N bonds to make the organometallic complex drawn in FIG. 11, step C.

Referring now to FIG. 11, a reaction schematic diagram is provided showing certain molecular structures which are believed to predominate in certain gel formation processes of the present disclosure. FIG. 11 provides a condensed view of FIGS. 4-7. At step A, an organic amine and an aldehyde, such as formaldehyde or paraformaldehyde, are combined (Liquid I). At step B, a hemiaminal low melting point gel is formed (Gel I). At step C, the hemiaminal low melting point gel is changed to a liquid solution by the addition of an M(+III) complex (Liquid II). Iron(III) is shown for example. Using iron(III) as a catalyst and heating allows formation of a greater melting point gel at step D (Gel II). The greater melting point gel at step D, comprising a triazine core, can be returned to a liquid solution by the addition of excess iron(III), or by the addition of acid as discussed previously.

Heating the organometallic liquid described in Table 2 (Experiment II-A) reduces the gel time, or in other words the time it takes a greater melting point gel to form from a liquid solution. Referring now to FIG. 12, a graph is provided showing the time dependence of rheology for the gel formulation described in Table 2 at various temperatures. While it takes about 90 hours to achieve a gel at 55° C., a gel is obtained in about 6 hours at 87° C. (see FIG. 12). Another factor influencing the gel time is the relative concentration of NMP in the formulation. The gel time was longer when 260 equivalents of NMP were used in the formulation (see Table 3 and FIG. 13) as opposed to 65 equivalents as in the formulation presented in Table 2.

Referring now to FIG. 13, a graph is provided showing the viscosity versus time for a sample gel with 24.4 molecular equivalents of sodium sulfite to JEFFAMINE® and showing a sample gel without sodium sulfite. The addition of sodium sulfite to the ferric hemiaminal liquids accelerates the formation of greater melting point triazine-based gels. When the liquid described in Table 3 was heated to 60° C., the liquid transitioned to a gel in about 17.5 hours. From experiment II-B it has been determined that the addition of 9.2 molecular equivalents (relative to JEFFAMINE® T-5000) of sodium sulfite results in a significant shortening of the gel time to 12.5 hours. FIG. 13 depicts this transition. Sodium sulfite therefore can be used as an accelerator to tune the gel time of gel chemical system for producing greater melting point gels.

Referring now to FIG. 14, a graph is provided showing the effect of increasing aluminum chloride content on gel time at 68° C. The data from Experiment II-C is presented in FIG. 14. When the precursor hemiaminal liquid is heated to 69° C., the liquid transitions to a gel in about 2.0 hours. The addition of 6.8 molecular equivalents (relative to JEFFAMINE® T-5000) of aluminum chloride hexahydrate results in a significant lengthening of the gel time to 3.5 hours. Therefore, on one hand aluminum(III) acts as a catalyst for the formation of the triazine gel but on the other hand it acts as a retarder. The more aluminum that is added, the slower the transformation to the triazine, after a certain point.

Aluminum chloride acts as both an accelerator to gel formation catalyzing formation of a triazine complex, and as a retarder by stabilizing reactants prior to the triazine product. Without being bound by any theory or principle, the action of aluminum chloride is believed to occur because a trivalent metal (or “M(+III)”) lessens the activation energy for the ring closing of product G to product H (discussed with regard to FIG. 1B). An M(+III) also stabilizes liquid by binding to anyone of the structures from A to F in FIGS. 1A and 1B. This stabilization retards the formation of product H because the relative activation energy is increased by the lessening of the free energies of the structures (A-F) responsible for the liquid state.

In some embodiments, ferric ammonium sulfate accelerates the formation of the triazine, but the addition of increasing amounts of ferric ammonium sulfate to the solution also leads to a decrease in the rate of formation of triazine. This may occur through the same mechanism as the retardation of the product formation in the case of aluminum.

Referring now to FIG. 15, a graph is provided showing the effect of increasing ferric ammonium sulfate concentration on gel time at 69° C. Experiment II-D is the iron(III) analogue to Experiment II-C. In Experiment II-D, increasing the amount of iron(III) relative to the 65:5 hemiaminal organometallic liquid also increases the gel time. The results for Experiment II-D are graphed in FIG. 15.

Referring now to FIG. 16, a graph is provided plotting the relative gel times for hemiaminal gels complexed with aluminum(III) and iron(III). Comparing the gel times of the iron(III) and aluminum(III) gels shows a substantial increase in the gel time for gels prepared with iron(III). Iron(III) is a more strongly retarding additive to triazine greater melting point gel formation. FIG. 16 shows the difference graphically in a linear plot of gel time to M(+III) concentration. Regardless of their relative differences in terms of retarding effectiveness, they both display this propensity to retard gel formation with increasing concentration.

Aluminum(III) acts as a catalyst for triazine gel formation. Triazine gel formation is faster with 1.1 equivalents of ARM) than in the absence of a trivalent metal additive. Results from Experiment II-E show that a 65:5 hemiaminal gel was heated to 120° C. (past the melting point of the gel) and analyzed with a Grace Instruments rheometer in oscillatory shear mode (1 Hz and 10% strain).

Referring now to FIG. 17, a graph is provided showing storage modulus and loss modulus results at 72° C. and 115° C. for the results of Experiment II-E. The cross-over point for the storage and loss moduli for the hemiaminal liquid in the absence of M(+III) at 115° C. occurs at about 8.25 hours (point A), whereas the cross-over point for the storage and loss moduli for the same gel digested with 1.1 equivalents of aluminum(III) occurs at just over an hour at 72° C. (see point B). This cross-over point can be considered as the point where the liquid transforms into a gel. The storage and loss moduli at 25.6° C. are 632 Pascals (“Pa”) and 0 Pa, respectively. The storage and loss moduli at 77.8° C. are 685 Pa and 0 Pa, respectively. The storage and all modulus values were obtained at 1 Hz with 10% strain. The triazine gelation time of a 65:5 hemiaminal fluid at 115° C. is about 8.3 hours. The storage and loss moduli at 25.0° C. are 1.020 kilopascals (“kPa”) and 0 kPa, respectively. The triazine gelation time of a 65:5 hemiaminal fluid with 1.1 equivalents of AlCl₃ at 72° C. is about 1.1 hours.

While Gel II, depicted in FIG. 10, can be accessed through complexation with M(+III), Gel II is also accessed in the absence of M(+III). Al(III) hastens the formation of Gel II, but the more Al(III) that is added past a certain point, the slower the conversion becomes.

Referring now to FIGS. 18 and 19, FIG. 18 provides a graph showing gelation time of a 65:5 gel with 1.2 equivalents of AlCl₃ by showing increase in modulus over time. FIG. 19 is a graph showing the cross-over point A of the storage modulus and the loss modulus at about 120° C. for the sample of FIG. 18.

Additive Release from Hemiaminal Gels

Referring now to FIGS. 20-23, in a first experiment for Additive Release from Hemiaminal Gels, the gel formulation described in Table 8 was tested for timed release activity. JEFFAMINE® ED900 is a polyethylene glycol diamine with a molecular weight of about 900 Da, and was obtained from Huntsman International LLC. LOMAR® D, produced by GEO Specialty Chemicals, is used as an oil well cement dispersant and has a signature in the UV range (with a broad absorption peak at about 300 nm) that is useful in the determination of the disintegration of gels and the release of a gel's contents. The gel was produced by heating the formaldehyde with NMP at 60° C. for 40 minutes and then adding the remaining contents and stirring for 30 minutes. The gel appeared to be homogenous. The ultraviolet-visible (UV/VIS) spectrum study of the release of the contents of a gel of LOMAR® D was studied by taking a 1.5 gram sample of the gel and placing it in 90 grams of solvent.

In a first test, the solvent was water. In a second test, the solvent was NMP. In a third test, the solvent was 10 grams of AlCl₃ dissolved in 90 grams of NMP. In each of these tests for the Additive Release from Hemiaminal Gels Experiment, the baseline was set as the solvent prior to the addition of the gel. Then, the breakdown of the gel was measured by a change in the spectra as a function of time.

TABLE 8 Formulation of a polyethylene glycol based hemiaminal gel for the first Additive Release from Hemiaminal Gels Experiment. Molecular Mass Molar Material Weight (g) Moles Ratio Ratio Formaldehyde 30.03 1.04 0.034632 2.308802309 1 JEFFAMINE ® ED900 900 13.5 0.015 1 0.433125 NMP 99.13 21.1 0.212852 14.19012072 14.19012 LOMAR ® D 0.5

FIG. 20 is a graph showing time resolved UV/VIS spectra for the release of LOMAR® D and the disintegration of the hemiaminal gel in water. After 2 hours, the gel had completely disintegrated and was no longer visible in the liquid.

FIG. 21 is a graph showing time resolved UV/VIS spectra for the release of LOMAR® D and the disintegration of the hemiaminal gel in NMP. After 24 hours, the gel appeared to be still intact within the liquid. FIG. 22 is a graph showing time resolved UV/VIS spectra for the release of LOMAR® D and the disintegration of the hemiaminal gel in NMP with AlCl₃. As can be noted from FIGS. 20-22, the gel responds differently to different solvent environments.

The polyethylene-glycol based gel is sensitive to the presence of water and disintegrated quickly in water (within 2 hours all the gel had disappeared). (This was not the case when the gel was a polypropylene glycol based hemiaminal gel, such as with JEFFAMINE® T-5000). When the tested gel was placed in NMP (FIG. 21), there was no appreciable disintegration of the gel over periods of hours to days at room temperature. FIG. 22 shows the effect of AlCl₃ dissolved in the NMP. This caused the gel to disintegrate rapidly. The particulates caused by the disintegration result in increased light scattering. This can be seen in the plot in FIG. 22, as the background from 800 nm to 300 nm increases with time. Observation of the sample also indicated that particulates would be produced in the solvent as the gel was disintegrating. After about 5 hours, the gel in NMP with AlCl₃ had completely disintegrated and was no longer visible in the liquid.

In a second experiment for Additive Release from Hemiaminal Gels with N-vinyl pyrrolidone (“NVP”) copolymerized with N-butyl acrylate, the gel formulation described in Table 9 was tested for timed release activity. JEFFAMINE® ED900 is a polyethylene glycol diamine with a molecular weight of about 900 Da, and was obtained from Huntsman International LLC. The gel was produced by heating the formaldehyde with NVP at 60° C. for 40 minutes and then adding N-butylacrylate, potassium persulfate, LOMAR® D and stirring for 30 minutes. The solid rendered from this experiment appeared to be homogenous. The UV/VIS study of the release of LOMAR® D from the gels was studied by taking a 1.5 gram sample of the gel and placing it in 90 grams of water.

As may be noted from FIG. 23, the release profile for NVP/N-butyl acrylate polymer-hemiaminal system in water is substantially different from that of the NMP hemiaminal gel in water, shown in FIG. 22. The NVP/N-butyl acrylate polymer (FIG. 23) clearly inhibits the release of LOMAR® D. More than ten times the amount of polymer is released from the NMP gel (FIG. 22) than from the copolymer system after an hour at room temperature in de-ionized water.

TABLE 9 Formulation of a polyethylene glycol based hemiaminal gel for a second Additive Release from Hemiaminal Gels Experiment. Molecular Mass Molar Material Weight (g) Moles Ratio Ratio Formaldehyde 30.03 1.04 0.034632 2.308802309 1 JEFFAMINE ® ED900 900 13.5 0.015 1 0.433125 NVP 111.14 23.65637 0.212852 14.19013333 6.146102 N-butyl acrylate 128.17 27.28124 0.212852 14.19013333 6.146102 Potassium Persulfate 270.322 0.25 0.000925 0.061654866 0.026704 LOMAR ® D 0.5

While downhole pH values can vary, water-based drilling fluids typically range from about pH 8 to about pH 12. Oil well cement is typically of a pH between about pH 10 and about pH 11.5. In the case where the gels of the present disclosure are introduced to water-based drilling fluids, the stability of the gel can be tested in the presence of the drilling fluid for compatibility by one of ordinary skill in the art.

In embodiments of the present disclosure, the reversible aminal gels disclosed can be used in compositions, systems, and methods for extracting hydrocarbons from hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs. In some embodiments, delayed acid precursors such as polyester, polylactic acid (“PLA”), and polyglutamic acid (“PGA”), for example, can be considered to reverse the gel when it is required to remove the gel as a liquid, for example in the application of temporarily plugging a well.

Gel Time Experiments for the Transformation of Gels from Hemiaminal to Triazine-Based Gels with Tri-Aminated Polypropylene Glycols Tested with Small Amplitude Oscillatory Shear

Rheological measurements were performed on an Anton Paar MCR 302 Rheometer equipped with a Peltier heater and an overhead hood for convective temperature regulation. The measuring system was a titanium 25 millimeters (“mm”) parallel plate measuring system (PP-25 Ti). For all of the melting point determinations, the gels were placed on the stage and melted at a temperature slightly higher than the measured melting point so that they conformed to the geometry of the parallel plates once the plates are 1 mm apart from one another.

Melting points determined with the Anton Paar MCR 302 were observed with a temperature ramp rate of 2° C. per minute. This rate was determined to be the optimum ramp rate for the gels, balancing the thermal conductivity of the compositions with the observed propensity for the fluids to transform into the thermodynamically favored closed-ring triazine.

Certain gels that are kinetic (see, for example, FIGS. 1A-1B, A-G) and not thermodynamic products (see, for example, FIG. 1B, H), so a slower ramp rate could affect the results and artificially raise the measured melting point as the gel slowly converts into the thermodynamic ring closed triazine product (see, for example, FIG. 1B, H). Two degrees Celsius per minute is the fastest ramp rate that ensures that the sample is at the temperature of the base plate of the parallel plates, providing the heating. Gelation times were measured in the Anton Paar MCR 302 operating in oscillatory mode at a frequency of 1 Hz and a strain amplitude of 1%. All gel times measured through this method where measured at 70° C.

The method for synthesizing the hemiaminal gels was as follows: JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was added to formaldehyde in NMP. JEFFAMINE® T-5000 is a tris primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of 5000 Da. To prepare the hemiaminal gels, paraformaldehyde was added to NMP and stirred for 30 minutes at 60° C. Then an amount of JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was added to the NMP solution and stirred for 20 minutes at 60° C.

In experiments where NH₄(Fe(II))SO₄ was added, 0.2 grams of Fe(II) was added directly to the newly formed hemiaminal molten gel prior to removing from heat. After the addition of the ferrous compound, the sample was removed from the heat and stirred until homogeneous while cooling to room temperature. For samples where the addition of trivalent metal salts was examined, the gel formed from the condensation of formaldehyde and JEFFAMINE® T-5000 in NMP was broken down through the addition of an Fe(III) or Al(III) complex. In order to hasten the complexation of metal in the material, the gel was sliced into small pieces to increase the surface area for reaction with the metal salt.

The amount of JEFFAMINE® added to the solution was varied to demonstrate the effect of the change in amine to aldehyde concentration from an amine to aldehyde ratio of 0.55 to 1.7. These samples are labeled A-1 through A-5 in Table 10. Table 1 describes the proportions of the components in the tested gel. The mixing of the materials here is also referred to as General Chemical Method I.

TABLE 10 Formulations for the different samples for Gel Time Experiments for the Transformation of Gels from Hemiaminal to Triazine- based Gels with Tri-aminated Polypropylene Glycols tested with small amplitude oscillatory shear. Variable amine:aldehyde ratio with a formaldehyde concentration of 0.216M. Mass of JEFFAMINE ® JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 T-5000 Amine:Aldehyde Sample (g) (millimoles) Ratio A-1 4.0 0.8 0.55 A-2 6.0 1.2 0.83 A-3 8.0 1.6 1.1 A-4 10 2.0 1.4 A-5 12 2.4 1.7

As a comparison point, a parallel set of gels was made of A-1 to A-5 where 0.2 grams of NH₄(Fe(II))SO₄ was added prior to cooling the gel in the process of the hemiaminal synthesis described in General Chemical Method I.

Experiments for Gel Destruction and Reformation with Aluminum Chloride

Gels produced through the condensation of formaldehyde and polypropylene glycol amine can be transformed into liquids through the addition of a trivalent metal. In this experiment, the effect of aluminum chloride hexahydrate is studied as a function of concentration of gels of identical composition. After the gel is reverted to a liquid, it is then heated to observe the second gelation time of the material. These transitions were examined rheologically with temperature and small amplitude oscillatory shear (“SAOS”) experiments. The most common approach for measuring time-dependent viscoelastic properties of a material on a rotational rheometer is to perform small amplitude oscillatory shear over a range of oscillation frequencies

The formaldehyde concentration was 81.7 millimole (“mM”) in NMP with an amine to aldehyde ratio of 0.55. The amount of aluminum chloride added to the solution was varied to demonstrate the effect of the change in trivalent metal concentration on the gelation of the liquid. These samples are labeled B-1 through B-4 in Table 12. After the addition of aluminum to the hemiaminal gels and following the transformation of the materials into liquids, the gel times of the materials were observed at 70° C. in a rheometer set to measure at fixed frequency (1 Hz) and amplitude (0.1% strain) in SAOS mode.

TABLE 11 Formulation for initial hemiaminal gel in Experiments for Gel Destruction and Reformation with Aluminum Chloride. Material Molar Ratio Mass (grams) Moles Paraformaldehyde 5.4 1.04 0.0346 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 1 32.0 0.0064 N-Methyl pyrrolidone 64.9 41.2 0.4155

TABLE 12 Varying amounts of aluminum chloride added to initial hemiaminal gels. Molar Ratio to Mass of Moles of Sample JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 AlCl₃•6H₂O (g) AlCl₃•6H₂O B-1 1.13 1.75 0.00725 B-2 1.46 2.25 0.00932 B-3 1.94 3.0 0.0124 B-4 2.27 3.5 0.0145

Experiments for Demonstration of the Effect of Aluminum Chloride Concentration on the Gelation Time.

The effect of aluminum chloride was examined in this experiment. As shown in the formulation in Table 13, increasing amounts of aluminum chloride were added to the 65:5 hemiaminal gel. This gel had a composition with amine to aldehyde molar ratio of 0.55 and a formaldehyde concentration of 0.865 M. For each of these three compositions with differing concentrations of aluminum chloride hexahydrate, the gelation time is measured at a temperature of 68° C.

TABLE 13 The formulations examined in Chemical Method II (as described further as follows). Amine to aldehyde molar ratio of 0.55 at a formaldehyde concentration of 0.865M. Material Molar Ratio Mass (grams) Moles Paraformaldehyde 5.4 2.08 0.0692 Jeffamine T-5000 1 64.0 0.0128 N-Methyl pyrrolidone 64.9 82.4 0.831 Aluminum Chloride 1.2, 3.8, 0.0157, Hexahydrate 4.1, 7.0 12.7, 21.6 0.0526, 0.0895 Experiments for Gel Destruction with Ferric Ammonium Sulfate

The gels, A-1 through A-5, were reacted with ferric ions in the form of ferric ammonium sulfate, whereby ferric ammonium sulfate was added in the amount of 0.51 millimoles (“mmoles”) (0.246 g) to render the ferric to JEFFAMINE® T-5000 ratio to be 0.63, 0.42, 0.32, 0.25, and 0.21 for samples A-1 through A-5, respectively.

Experiments for the Demonstration of the Effect of Ferric Ammonium Sulfate as a Catalyst and a Retarder for Triazine Ring Closure

As in the Experiments for Demonstration of the Effect of Aluminum Chloride Concentration on the Gelation Time, the gel examined for Experiments for the Demonstration of the Effect of Ferric Ammonium Sulfate as a Catalyst and a Retarder for Triazine Ring Closure has a composition with amine to aldehyde molar ratio of 0.55 and a formaldehyde concentration of 0.865 M. The effect of iron(III) concentration on the gelation time was observed in this experiment. Varying amounts of iron(III) were added to the hemiaminal gel as described in Table 14. The gelation times are measured at 68° C.

TABLE 14 Varying amounts of iron(III) were added to the hemiaminal gel as shown. Material Molar Ratio Mass (grams) Moles Paraformaldehyde 5.4 2.08 0.0692 JEFFAMINE ® T-5000 1 64.0 0.0128 N-Methyl pyrrolidone 64.9 82.4 0.831 Ferric Ammonium 1.1, 1.5, 6.8, 9.25, 0.014, 0.019, Sulfate Dodecahydrate 1.9, 5.2 11.7, 32.1 0.024, 0.067

General Chemical Method II. The Addition of Tris(2-Carboxyethyl)Phosphine to Triazine

Certain experiments tested triggered release from a triazine gel. In other words, “cracking open the ring” was tested, for example, by the addition of phosphine to aluminum aminal gels. 3.01 grams of liquid, B-1, was heated to 70° C. for 2 hours. Then, 1.38 grams of tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine was added to the gel along with 2 grams of N-methyl pyrrolidone. The material was stirred for three days. After three days it was dissolved. The shear modulus of B-1 was compared at each of these steps.

TABLE 15 Gel formulations for the different “A” samples. Mass of Hemiaminal Hemiaminal JEFFAMINE ® T- JEFFAMINE ® T- Amine:Aldehyde Measured Melting to Aminal at Sample 5000 (g) 5000 (mmoles) Ratio Points (° C.) 110° C. (min) A-1 4.0 0.8 0.55 51.1 206 A-2 6.0 1.2 0.83 73.1 n/a A-3 8.0 1.6 1.1 105.5 192 A-4 10 2.0 1.4 79.4 230 A-5 12 2.4 1.7 68.0 276

Table 15 summarizes the melting points and hemiaminal to triazine conversion rates of the formulations A-1 through A-5. Through these samples, the amine (from JEFFAMINE® T-5000) to aldehyde ratio is adjusted from 0.55 to 1.7. The melting points of the hemiaminal gels (A1 through A5) are observed to vary as a function of the amine to aldehyde ratio. FIG. 24 plots this relation. The highest melting point is observed for the amine to aldehyde ratio of about 1:1, likely, without being bound by any theory or principle, because this ratio offers the maximum number of aldehyde reacted amine to free amine while ensuring the minimum amount of reduction in the free amine ends in a polymer chain. Ultimately, in certain embodiments, the triazine (thermodynamic product) requires a 1:1 amine to aldehyde ratio to be optimized. Other ratios may reduce the branch density of the polymer network.

Referring now to FIG. 24, the melting point trend is shown as a function of amine:aldehyde ratio for gels produced through the method described in this section. For all gels tested, JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was used as the amine, and the molar concentration of formaldehyde in NMP was 0.216 M.

When Mohr's salt (ammonium iron(II) sulfate hexahydrate) was added to the gels in the synthesis of the gels, the melting points were reduced from their values in the absence of iron(II) with the exception of A-5 which increases by 0.5° C. Furthermore, the presence of iron(II) appears to catalyze the formation of the triazine structure from the open hemiaminal structure. All gels that are converted to the triazine rings structures have melting points in excess of 200° C., which is the high temperature limit of the Anton Paar MCR 302.

TABLE 16 Samples A-1 through A-5 prepared with 0.2 g of Mohr's salt. Fe(2) Mass of Hemiaminal JEFFAMINE ® JEFFAMINE ® Amine:Aldehyde Amine:Fe(II) Measured Melting Sample T-5000 (g) T-5000 (mmoles) Ratio ratio Points (° C.) A-1 4.0 0.8 0.55 0.64 49.0 A-2 6.0 1.2 0.83 0.43 56.5 A-3 8.0 1.6 1.1 0.32 61.4 A-4 10 2.0 1.4 0.26 63.4 A-5 12 2.4 1.7 0.21 68.5

Referring now to FIGS. 25A-H, the amplitude sweeps of samples A-1 through A-4 are shown. The rheology of the gels was tracked as shown in FIGS. 25E-H to ensure that the gels were stabilized and showed minimal changes in storage and loss moduli prior to beginning the amplitude sweeps (in FIGS. 25A-D). FIGS. 25E-H show stabilization of gel rheological properties after temperature stabilization at 25° C. for A-1 (FIG. 25E), A-2 (FIG. 25F), A-3 (FIG. 25G), and A-4 (FIG. 25H).

Samples A-1 through A-4 were swept for amplitude, and the results are shown in FIGS. 25A-D. The gels each had a different stiffness and different response to amplitude changes. In particular, sample A-3 in FIG. 25C showed a shorter linear region in the amplitude sweep than the other gels. In sample A-3, the loss modulus increased to significantly greater than a shear strain of about 0.5. The other gels were linear through to at least a shear strain of about 1.0.

Gel samples A-1 and A-4 in FIGS. 25A and 25D, respectively, showed the largest linear region. Of interest is the effect of iron(II) on the sweep amplitude profile of the gels. The addition of ferrous ammonium sulfate has the effect of increasing the strain tolerance for the gels A-1 through A-5. The effect of iron(II) is shown in FIG. 26. FIG. 26A is a graph showing phase shift angle versus shear strain for sample A-5, sample A-5 with 0.2 grams of Mohr's salt, and sample A-5 with 0.8 grams of Mohr's salt. FIG. 26B is a graph showing phase shift angle versus shear strain for sample A-3 and sample A-3 with iron(II), along with amplitude sweep and corresponding phase angle.

The case of adding iron(II) is distinct from the case where iron(III) was added to the gels. When a ferric iron(III) salt was added to the gels A-1 through A-5, the gels reverted back to a liquid. FIGS. 27A and 27B show photographs of the gels after the addition of ferric ammonium sulfate. The A-1 gel showed the fastest and most complete conversion to liquid accompanied with a color change to red. FIG. 27A is a pictorial representation of the addition of a trivalent metal salt, ferric ammonium sulfate, to samples A-1 through A-5. FIG. 27B is a pictorial representation of the addition of a trivalent metal salt, ferric ammonium sulfate, to samples A-1 through A-5.

Referring now to FIG. 28, when sample A-1 was reacted with aluminum chloride the gel turned to a liquid, as shown in FIG. 28A. When sample A-1 was heated to 70° C., it is transformed back to a gel state, as shown in FIG. 28B. The gel was then broken down back to a liquid through the addition of phosphine in NMP, as shown in FIG. 28C.

The time of the transformation of the liquid in FIG. 28A to the gel in FIG. 28B depends not only on the temperature but also the concentration of aluminum in the sample. FIGS. 29A and 29B show the results of a small amplitude oscillatory rheometry experiment in which different amounts of aluminum chloride were added to the same gel composition and the resulting gel time for the organometallic liquid at 70° C. was recorded (FIG. 29B). Increasing amounts of aluminum chloride increase the gel time.

In the state of the art, many completion fluids which are designed to build up viscosity or form reversible gels suffer from performance limitations due to thermal degradation of the fluids and gels at temperature conditions of many oil and gas wells. Many commercially-available fluids begin to thermally degrade at temperatures greater than about 50° C. Current screen running kill pill formulations available in the industry are based upon biopolymer, xanthan, cross-linked starch, and guar formulations which suffer from serious limitations in performance.

With average hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir temperatures of approximately 140° C., mechanical packers are often required in place of fluid formulations for screen running. This leads to greater expense and potential formation damage. Thus, there is a need for higher temperature kill pills than those commercially available. High temperature drill kill pills of the present disclosure have utility across open-hole completions and plug and perforate operations. These formulations are stable as solid gels at and greater than about 140° C. for a period of time, for example between about 1 hour and 1 week. Constitutionally-dynamic reversible aminal gels described here are stimulus-responsive materials, which can be advantageously used as high temperature “kill pills” in some embodiments. As used here, “kill pill” refers to materials that can stop flow of fluids in a wellbore or reservoir environment.

Hemiaminal/aminal metallogel compositions and systems disclosed and exemplified here demonstrate performance without degradation at temperatures up to about 150° C. and pressures up to about 60 MPa. Chemical systems also demonstrate reversibility under stimulated well conditions whereby thermodynamically favored metallogels can be broken, or returned to a liquid fluid state, within a sandstone core sample pressurized at 3.4 MPa and held at 70° C. These findings exemplify the suitability of these reversibly covalent chemical systems as high-performance completion fluids for such operations as perforations and workovers.

Hemiaminal (Kinetic) Gel Preparation Procedure

N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) and paraformaldehyde (in the proportions described in Table 17) were mixed together at 70° C. in an oil bath on a heated stir plate for 30 minutes. A polyoxypropylene triamine (trifunctional primary amine) with a molecular weight of 5 kiloDaltons (JEFFAMINE® T-5000 from Huntsman Corporation) was then added to the mixture and allowed to continue to stir at 70° C. for another 30 minutes. The pH of the product of this reaction was measured at about pH 7-8. The mixture was then removed from the oil bath and allowed to cool to room temperature where a gel formed, referred to here as a “65-5 kinetic gel” (A in FIG. 30).

Transformation of the Hemiaminal (Kinetic) Gel to Liquid Phase

The prepared hemiaminal kinetic gel was next cut into smaller pieces and placed into a jar with a magnetic stir rod. Aluminum chloride hexahydrate in the amounts indicated in Table 17 were added into the jar with the pieces of gel and allowed to stir for 24 hours, where breakdown of the gel into liquid occurred, producing what is referred to here as a “65-5 liquid” (B in FIG. 30). The pH of the liquid was measured at about pH 6.

TABLE 17 65-5 Kinetic Gel and 65-5 Liquid Formulations with NMP. Weight Molar Ratio to Material (g) JEFFAMINE ® T- 5000 Moles N-methyl-2- 41.2 64.9 0.416 pyrrolidone (NMP) Paraformaldehyde 1.04 5.4 0.0346 JEFFAMINE ® T- 5000 32.0 1 0.0064 Aluminum Chloride 1.85 1.2 0.0077 Hexahydrate

Rheology Experiments

The 65-5 liquid (from the ratio of NMP to paraformaldehyde where the ratio of paraformaldehyde to JEFFAMINE® T-5000 is 5.4:1) was tested in a Grace M5600 high pressure high temperature (HPHT) rheometer to study the temperature effects on gelation time at 3.4 MPa. The rheometer uses an oscillatory test where the sample is subjected to a steady 1 Hz frequency and 100% amplitude oscillatory strain. The resulting stress is measured and recorded as an elastic and viscous modulus (G′ and G″ respectively). Gel time is interpreted as when G′ crosses over G″. The system was tested at 70° C., 100° C., and 150° C. (results shown in FIG. 31).

The 65-5 liquid was tested in a Fann i-X77 HPHT rheometer to study the effect of varying pressure on gelation time while holding the sample at a constant 70° C. A rotational sweep program was used to simulate oilfield testing conditions and to establish a gel time under 20, 35, and 60 MPa (results in FIG. 32). Initial increases in shear stress show time for gelation.

Core Flood Experiment

Core flood testing was conducted in a Grace 9100 Core Flow apparatus. To prepare the core for the gel breaking study, an Idaho Gray sandstone core (6 inches in length, 1 inch in diameter) was vacuum pumped for 2 hours in the 65-5 liquid from above to saturate the pores in the core. The core was removed from the vacuum pump apparatus, fully submerged with excess 65-5 liquid and placed into an oven at 70° C. overnight, where the liquid solidified into a gel over time. After allowing the gelled core to cool to about room temperature, excess solidified gel was removed from the exterior of the core, and a fully-saturated, gelled core was left for testing.

The accumulator in FIG. 33, discussed further as follows, holds either neat NMP or a saturated solution of 50 g of Tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (“TCEP”) dissolved in 500 mL of NMP, depending on the experiment.

Gel Weighting Procedure

The density of example compositions for use as a kill pill can be adjusted with the addition of salts. Density adjustments can be made with, for example, zinc bromide and sodium bromide. Zinc bromide provides an advantageous density at 1.35 grams/cubic centimeter (“g/cc”), and sodium bromide achieves about 1.1 g/cc. Sodium bromide also offers advantageous temperature stability. The method of density adjustment with salt follows, and shown is an example case for zinc bromide.

Zinc bromide is added to NMP stirring at room temperature until a fully saturated solution of ZnBr₂ in NMP is achieved. The proportions are described in Table 18. The density of the fully saturated solution is about 1.35 g/cc as measured by a pycnometer.

The ZnBr₂ saturated NMP and paraformaldehyde are mixed together at 70° C. in an oil bath on a heated stir plate for 30 minutes. JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was then added to the mixture and allowed to continue to stir at 70° C. for another 30 minutes. The mixture was then removed from the oil bath and allowed to cool to room temperature where a gel would form.

TABLE 18 Weighted Sample Formulations with Example Salt. Weight Molar Ratio to Material (g) JEFFAMINE ® T- 5000 Moles NMP Saturated with ZnBr₂ 41.2 64.9 0.416 Paraformaldehyde 1.04 5.4 0.0346 JEFFAMINE ® T- 5000 32.0 1 0.0064

A schematic for the chemical transformations in the dynamic covalent systems studied is presented in the reaction scheme of FIG. 30. This is similar to the schemes shown in FIGS. 3 to 7. The chemical system involves the condensation of a polypropylene glycol triamine with formaldehyde in the polar aprotic solvent, N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP). FIG. 30 shows the condensation of a functionalized amine where the R—NH₂ group corresponds to an alkylene glycol triamine.

Different products are denoted by letters A, B, C, and D, and correspond to different chemical structures and material phases. The initial condensation involves a number of intermediates in the process of the formation of product B, which have been abbreviated in FIG. 30. The dynamics of the condensation are modified through the addition of a trivalent metal salt (M(III)), such as aluminum chloride, in addition to or alternative to another metal salt, such as zinc bromide or sodium bromide (M(II)). The addition of the trivalent metal has the effect of reversing the initial kinetic hemiaminal gel to a liquid (A to B of FIG. 30), such that the earlier products in the condensation pathway are favored over the final products at room temperature. The resulting organometallic liquid with the trivalent metal can be transformed into a more thermodynamically stable gel with heating (B to C of FIG. 30). This gel can in turn be reverted to liquid with the addition of TCEP in NMP (C to D of FIG. 30) (or alternatively with NMP).

Demonstrating that the hemiaminal chemistry can be weighted with salts commonly used in the oil field, zinc bromide has been shown here to work as a good density modifying agent. Weights of up to about 1.35 g/cc are possible with the liquids loaded in this way.

As shown in FIG. 31, when pressure is increased and held constant and temperature is varied, there is a similar correspondence observed as was previously observed under atmospheric pressure conditions. A rise in temperature leads to a faster rate of gelation. Specifically, when the 65-5 liquid is maintained at 3.4 MPa. and heated to 70, 100, and 150° C., the corresponding gel times, measured from the elastic and viscous modulus cross-over are 340, 190 and 40 minutes, respectively.

These results correspond with what has been previously observed and reported under atmospheric pressure. That the transformation occurs at temperatures up to 150° C. indicates, in part, the suitability for this chemical system under higher temperature wellbore situations. The temperature dependence of the gelation time at 3.4 MPa is displayed in FIG. 31, and the data presented in FIG. 31 are from small amplitude oscillatory shear experiments where G′ is the elastic modulus of the materials tested and G″ is the viscous modulus. The 65-5 liquid (described in the experimental section) was heated to the three different temperatures at 3.4 MPa, simulating three different wellbore environments. The data clearly show a decrease in gel time with increasing temperature.

When the 65-5 liquid (B in FIG. 30) is heated to 70° C. and pressurized to 20, 35 and 60 MPa, there is a pressure effect on the gelation kinetics. The gelation time displays a pressure dependence such that an increase in pressure decreases the gel time. At 20, 35, and 60 MPa, the corresponding gel times observed are 390, 270 and 140 minutes, respectively. The measurements indicate that the pressure accelerated the formation of the species towards the end of the condensation pathway, where formaldehyde and the trifunctional amine, JEFFAMINE® T-5000, condense increasingly branch hemiaminal and aminal condensation products. As shown in FIG. 32, the 65-5 liquid (described in the experimental section) is heated to 70° C. at three different pressures, simulating three different wellbore environments.

Referring now to FIG. 33, core flooding designs are illustrated and show the pathway for NMP and NMP/TCEP solutions to break the thermodynamic 65-5 gel formed and plugging an Idaho sandstone core. In system 3300, NMP or NMP/TCEP is poured into the top reservoir 3301 of the accumulator 3302. The ISCO pump 3304 uses DI water 3306 from DI water reservoir 3305 and line 3303 to push the piston 3308 in the accumulator 3302 upwardly, creating flow of the NMP solution through line 3310. The ISCO pump 3304 also controls the flow rate/set pressure of the NMP solution as it builds up on the bottom of the gel saturated core 3312 and reads out as bottom pressure 3316. The gel saturated core 3312 has 6.8 MPa confining pressure applied in the core holder 3313. Flow in line 3314 indicates the flow of breakthrough from the experiment with NMP or the experiment containing NMP and TCEP. When the top pressure reading 3318 matches the bottom pressure reading 3316, breakthrough is assumed to have occurred.

FIG. 34 is a graph showing the results of testing of the gel breaking ability of TCEP in a Grace 9100 Core Flow apparatus. As shown, top pressure rises quickly (in other words breakthrough occurs quickly) using a combination of NMP and TCEP to break the gel. FIG. 34 shows the output of the top pressure 3318 from the sample core 3312. The top pressure 3318 is measured as a function of time with the bottom pressure 3316 being ramped to the point of fluid breakthrough. The experiment demonstrates that the TCEP does degrade the gel in the core 3312 to allow for the return of free passage with no damage to the core sample observed, suggesting no formation damage from the use of these materials. The breakdown to the gel with TCEP occurs, at least in part, through the nucleophilic attack of phosphine at the methylene carbon on the aminal functional groups of the gels.

The stability of final formed thermodynamic 65-5 hexahydrotriazine gels at temperatures at or greater than 150° C. depends, in part, on the salt used for complexation. Table 19 lists the stabilities observed for polyhexahydrotriaziane gels (PHT Gels) for 1 hour, 24 hours, 3 days, and 7 days. All of the gel systems listed in Table 3 display stability for 24 hours; however, only the sodium bromide gel system shows enhanced stability for one week at 150° C.

TABLE 19 The thermal stabilities of different 65-5 PHT gels with metal salts. Poly- hexahydrotriaziane Gel Stability at 150° C. Salt Catalyst (“PHT”) Gel 1 24 3 7 Used at 70 ° C. Hour Hours Days Days No Salt Yes No n/a n/a n/a Aluminum Chloride Yes No n/a n/a n/a Hexahydrate Calcium Bromide Yes No n/a n/a n/a Cesium Chloride Yes No n/a n/a n/a Zinc Bromide Yes Yes No n/a n/a Calcium Chloride Yes Yes Yes No n/a Dihydrate Calcium Chloride Yes Yes Yes No n/a Hexahydrate Sodium Bromide Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Hemiaminal/aminal metallogel systems have been demonstrated to perform under pressures up to 60 MPa and temperatures up to 150° C. An advantageously thermally stable gel formulation uses sodium bromide salt to extend this performance at 150° C. to one week. This extends the performance window of the system to many conditions in oil and gas wells where currently-used high performance completion fluids show significant limitations in operability. Increasing either the temperature or the pressure in these systems increases the reaction rate and drives the formation of the thermodynamically favored gel. Weighting of the gel with zinc bromide is also demonstrated for situations where matching the pore-pressure within the rock formation with fluid hydrostatic pressure is desired.

In gelation tests where the gel systems were formed and stable at 70° C., the resulting gels were then immediately placed into a 150° C. oven to check for additional thermal stability. To check for stability, the vial containing said gel system would be flipped upside down and any movement of gel in addition to or alternative to liquid would be visually noted. A gel with no visual movement or liquid formation while held upside down is considered stable where as any other result is called unstable.

The reversibility inherent in the hemiaminal/aminal metallogels can be used to break the gels within a core sample under pressure in a standard core flood apparatus. Tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine has been shown to effectively break the gels within a highly permeable sandstone core sample. The breaking of the gel does not show remaining residue on the core and is thus anticipated not to impart formation damage in rock formations where the completion fluid system is deployed. The gel breaking in a core sample exemplified here is applicable to any of the stabilizing salts.

Fluids used when perforating are designed to prevent debris from degrading well equipment and limiting production. These fluids are usually brines which are weighted by the concentration of salt within the aqueous fluid. The salts range from potassium formate and calcium bromide to cesium formate, depending on the fluid density sought as well as economic considerations.

During the perforation event, brines can often leak into the formation along with debris and sand if the hydrostatic head of the fluid is greater than the pore pressure of the reservoir rock (a situation referred to as ‘overbalanced’). The density of the brines is often chosen to be overbalanced to prevent pore fluids from entering the wellbore during well construction operations. Since this situation can lead to losses of fluid into the formation, a secondary fluid typically referred to as a fluid-loss control pill, or kill pill, is often placed across the perforated interval to seal the perforations against further losses which incur blockages through particle plugging and reaction with clays when present in the formation. This prevents the desired passage of oil and gas from the formation. In other well-bore cleaning applications, and open hole completions, pre-packed liner fluid loss pills are used in situations where oil production is stopped to clean selected well zones from debris and particles limiting production. These treatments are temporary, and all fluids and gels must be removed after cleanup operations are completed. Kill pills therefore should also have zero formation invasion.

Application to Three-Dimensional (“3D”) Printing

3D printing of nanomaterials for building 3D printed integrated circuits (ICs), sensor elements, high-surface-area catalyst scaffolds, and low-density materials (for example, Aerogels), requires that the nanomaterials be deposited from a 3D printer nozzle in a manner that retains their high surface areas, intended architecture, and desired functionality. In embodiments disclosed here, hemiaminal and aminal gels are used to 3D print nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, into structure-retaining forms, and then the gels can removed via their inherent reversibility to liquids.

In one embodiment, carbon nanotubes are added to a solution at about 25 mg/L, and a gel is formed (for example, Gel I of FIG. 3 or reference “IV” of FIG. 4). The gel is used as a hot-melt for printing, and upon cooling a solid nanotube/gel structure is formed, optionally including a percolation network. The Gel I/carbon nanotube hot-melt can be printed on a substrate such as metal, Portland cement, calcium aluminate cement, or a magnesium oxide cement. In another embodiment, Liquid II of FIG. 3 is used for 3D printing with nanomaterials, and instead of cooling upon printing the liquid is heated to form Gel II of FIG. 3 upon printing. In other embodiments, optional cross-linking is applied with gel formation. In the embodiments described, a hemiaminal or aminal gel can be returned to a liquid and removed from a 3D-printed nanomaterial structure, which maintains its structure (for example on a substrate) without the gel.

Multi-wall carbon nanotubes are an example of a printable nanomaterial utilized in embodiments disclosed here. Other nanomaterials may include but are not limited to boron nitride nanotubes, graphene, graphite, single-wall carbon nanotubes, double-wall carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanohorns, glass fibers, alkali resistive glass fibers, and any combination of the foregoing.

Embodiments provide reversible gels for use in 3D printing with nanomaterials, specifically reversible aminal gels and structure-retaining carbon nanomaterials, and provide control of gel setting with temperature control, and control of gel removal by exposure to a chemical agent, for example water, hydrochloric acid, alkyl thiol in NMP, DMSO, DMF, or an alkylphosphine in NMP, DMSO, or DMF. Aqueous solution comprising water, for example, can also be used to delay timing of gelation.

3D Printing Example 1

3D Printing Example 1 shows the ability to pattern shapes of conductive fibers, which in one embodiment allows for additive manufacturing of antennas. The antennas can be passively sensitive to environmental changes, for example, a change in load on the antenna that causes the resonance frequency of the antenna to change. This is a measurable change in a property of the system that can be correlated to measure an external load.

First, NMP and paraformaldehyde (in the proportions described in Table 18) are stirred together at about 70° C. in an oil bath on a heated stir plate for about 30 min. Next, 3.5 mg of multi-wall nanotubes (or enough to reach the percolation threshold for electron conduction along the fibers) is added. When a solution percolation threshold is reached depends, in part, on the concentration, size, and aspect ratio of the conductive materials (for example, nanotubes) within the printed antenna. The percolation threshold is the minimum concentration or aspect ratio of the fibers required to allow a charge to percolate through the network of fibers. In other words, there is a minimum concentration at a given aspect ratio for a given size of fiber for which electrons can conduct along the fibers across a given volume. There needs to be a continuous contact between adjacent fibers across a given length for the electrons to flow from the beginning of that length to the end of it. In some embodiments for example, a percolation threshold can be determined through determination of the concentration at which the nanotubes produce a reduction by at least about one order of magnitude (as measured in ohm-meters) in comparison with cement set under the same condition but without nanotubes.

A polyoxypropylene triamine (JEFFAMINE® T-5000 from Huntsman Corporation, according to Table 18) is then added to the mixture along with an amount of aluminum chloride (rendering a final impedance of 50 ohms to the 3D-printed structure after printing), and stirring of the mixture continues at about 70° C. for about another 30 min. A suitable range of aluminum chloride is from about 0.05 to about 10 molar equivalents to JEFFAMINE® T-5000. The mixture was then removed from the oil bath and allowed to cool to room temperature where a gel would form, referred to here as “65:5 Al-gel” (from the ratio of NMP to paraformaldehyde, where the ratio of paraformaldehyde to JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was 5.4:1).

The gel is then extruded from a nozzle (inner diameter from about 10 micron to about 1 cm) of a 3D printing apparatus. The gel can be extruded in a temperature range from about 20° C. to about 200° C., based on the gel application. In some cases, the extrusion process can induce alignment in the orientation of fibers into material domains. Resistance can be measured with a four point probe apparatus. Resistance is tuned to 50 ohms, for example or another desired resistance, through the formulation by the addition of aluminum chloride. It can also be tuned by the size of the 3D-printed feature. The size of the 3D-printed feature can be controlled by the volume of the gel used in the 3D-printed structure (for example, from about 0.1 mL to about 0.5 L), the length of the printed structure (for example, from about 100 micron to about 1 meter), and the inner diameter of the 3D-printing nozzle (for example, from about 10 micron to about 1 cm). The impedance-matched printed antenna is then closed into a circuit and the resonance frequency of the 3D-printed antenna is measured with a vector network analyzer with a frequency sweep from 50 kHz to 10 GHz.

3D Printing Example 2

The antenna printed from 3D Printing Example 1 can be used as a high-surface-area sensor when a percolation threshold is reached based on the concentration, size, and aspect ratio of the conductive materials (for example, nanotubes) within the printed antenna. The binding of chemical agents to the sensor surface can influence the Q value and resonant frequency of the antenna. Q value of an antenna is a measure of the bandwidth of an antenna relative to the center frequency of the bandwidth. Antennas with a high Q value are narrowband, and antennas with a low Q value are wideband. With a greater Q value, the antenna input impedance is more sensitive to small changes in frequency.

The 3D-printed gel in 3D Printing Example 1 (with an example volume of about 10 mL) is removed from the antenna, leaving the shaped network of conductive fibers, through the addition of about 100 mg of Tris-carboxyethyl phosphine in about 10 mL of N-methyl pyrrolidone. The network of fibers can then be exposed to a chemical analyte, such as H₂S.

Alternatively, the 3D-printed gel may be freeze dried to remove N-methyl pyrrolidone, which remains unbound to the aminal polymer network. This has the effect of reducing the thickness of the polymer layer to the nanotube percolation network and thus increasing the sensitivity of the sensor.

3D Printing Example 3

Carbon nanotubes can be suspended in a N-alkyl pyrrolidone solvent such as, for example, N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), dimethyl formamide (DMF), N-vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP), in addition to or alternative to dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). As described throughout, these solvents can be used in the condensation of polyalkoxytriamine with formaldehyde (FIG. 4). After the suspension of the nanotubes in an amount of about 25 mg/L (a suitable range for the nanotubes is between about 0.01 mg/L to about 500 mg/L) in the aforementioned solvent, the nanomaterials and polyalkoxytriamine are condensed with formaldehyde with the molar proportions of about 65:5:1 (solvent:formaldehyde:polyalkoxytriamine) (aka 65:5 gel) thus rendering an organogel.

Formaldehyde may be obtained prior to the introduction of polyalkoxytriamine through the thermal “cracking” of paraformaldehyde in the solvent through heating to about 70° C. before or after the introduction of nanotubes. The gel is then transferred to a 3D printer reservoir as a hot-melt, in a temperature range from about 40° C. to about 200° C., and extruded through the nozzle at room temperature or cooler such that the storage modulus increases after extrusion to allow the organogel to re-form as a gel. The nanotube-liquid hot-melt (G″/G′>1, whereby G″ is the loss modulus and G′ is the storage modulus) is extruded to solidify as a gel (G″/G′<1) in a timely manner such that an intended nanoscale architecture is achieved wherein the nanotubes retain a percolation network after printing.

The catalytic formation of the hemiaminal gel is appropriated such that the printed nanotube gel structures retain their shapes on the substrate to which they are printed. The substrate may be cooled to facilitate the rapid gelation of the nanotube inclusive liquid. The substrate can be a metal (such as aluminum, copper, or titanium). In another embodiment the substrate can be a cementitious composite such as Portland cement or oil well grade Portland cement. In another embodiment, the substrate can be a calcium aluminate cement such as Ciment Fondu. In another embodiment, the substrate can be a magnesium oxide cement.

3D Printing Example 4

A 65:5 gel as described in 3D Printing Example 3 may be broken into a organometallic liquid through the introduction of aluminum chloride, ferrous chloride, in addition to or alternative to ferric chloride (FIG. 5). This organometallic liquid is added to the reservoir of a 3D printer and printed with heat greater than or equal to room temperature. As described throughout, these organometallic liquids can then be converted back to gels through additional heating (FIG. 6). Heat can be provided through heating of the printing nozzle or heating of the reservoir or both. Catalytic formation of a hexahydrotriazine gel is appropriated such that the printed nanotube gel structures retain their shapes on the substrate to which they are printed.

The substrate may be heated or cooled to facilitate the rapid gelation of the nanotube inclusive liquid. The substrate can be a metal (such as aluminum, copper, or titanium). In another embodiment, the substrate can be a cementitious composite such as Portland cement or oil well grade Portland cement. In another embodiment, the substrate can be a calcium aluminate cement such as Ciment Fondu. In another embodiment, the substrate can be a magnesium oxide cement.

3D Printing Example 5

A gel as described in 3D Printing Example 3 or 4 can be formulated with the solvent specifically including a vinyl-pyrrolidone solvent or vinyl-pyrrolidone solvent in combination with an N-alkylacrylate (for example, N-butyl acrylate). The solvent can cross-polymerize with the acrylate monomer either through the inclusion of a peroxide radical or through UV irradiation in the presence of or in the absence of a photosensitizer. The cross-linking reaction causes immediate or nearly immediate gelation of the material. The printed structure retains the intended shape prior to or immediately after deposition onto the substrate with application of a cross-linking initiator.

3D Printing Example 6

The printed material from 3D Printing Examples 1-5 can be exposed to a chemical agent (for example, water, hydrochloric acid, alkyl thiol in NMP, DMSO, or DMF, or an alkylphosphine in NMP, DMSO, or DMF). The exposure of the gel to such chemical agents reverses the condensation and allows for the removal or the gel and its constituents (with the exception of the nanomaterial) after washing with the chemical agent. The architecture of the nanotubes can be retained in three dimensions without the surrounding aminal or hemiaminal inclusive gel environment. For example, a percolation network can be maintained after removal to the hemiaminal or aminal gel.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, quick setting of a hemiaminal or aminal gel used in 3D printing is desired and can be brought about for example by increased or decreased temperature upon extrusion and printing as described, depending on gel application. However, in some other embodiments gelation time of a hemiaminal or aminal gel can be delayed, for example during co-extrusion with a quicker-setting material and a slower-setting material. A quicker-setting material, such as a hemiaminal or aminal precursor fluid without an aqueous solution, may conform and set to a 3-D surface, while the slower-setting material, such as a hemiaminal or aminal precursor fluid with an added aqueous solution, would then later conform to the shape of the quicker-setting material set on a surface. Setting times of hemiaminal and aminal gels can be increased by addition of aqueous solutions, for example water.

Embodiments of disclosed conformance gels were prepared by mixing a quantity of paraformaldehyde in N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) at 70° C. for 30 minutes. Prior to this initial step, sodium bromide can be optionally dissolved in NMP to extend the thermal tolerance of the gel. A polyoxypropylene triamine (such as JEFFAMINE® T-5000 from Huntsman Corporation) was then mixed with the NMP solution of cracked paraformaldehyde to render a gel during a time period which can be regulated by the amount of water or aqueous solution that is added to the mixture. The gel can, at a later time, be reverted to liquid by introducing a gel-breaker including any one of or any combination of an acid or a nucleophilic agent such as triscarboxyethyl phosphine or alkyl thiol.

Suitable reversible gel compositions and methods for application for use with aqueous fluid, such as water, to control initial gelation times or repeat gelation times include those examples and experiments discussed previously herein, for example the compositions in the ratios of Table 1. Aqueous fluids, for example water such as deionized (DI) water, can aid in controlling gelation time of gels including an organic amine, an aldehyde (such as paraformaldehyde), an aprotic organic solvent (such as NMP, dimethyl formamide, N-alkyl pyrrolidone (where the alkyl group ranges from 1-5 carbons), and an optional salt (such as NaBr, NaCl, CaCl₂), CaBr₂, ZnBr₂, and ZnCl₂). The organic amine composition can include any one of or any combination of an aminated polyethylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of about 200 to about 100,000 g/mol, a primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of about 280 to about 100,000 g/mol, and oxydianiline.

Aqueous fluid can be used to retard or slow the gelation of flowable fluids to solid gels. Aqueous fluids including water can be added to pre-gelled liquid compositions in a range between about 0.5 wt. % to about 50 wt. %, or from about 5 wt. % to about 40 wt. %, or from about 10 wt. % to about 30 wt. %, or at about 20 wt. % or 10 wt. %. Gels of the condensation products of formaldehyde and Jeffamines have been observed with storage modulus (G′) values between 100 and 100,000 Pascals (Pa) and loss modulus (G″) values between 1 and 10,000 Pa. The gel state is generally defined by G′/G″>1.

Conformance Gel Preparation Showing Aqueous Hued Control of Gelation Timing. NMP was saturated with sodium bromide overnight with vigorous stirring at room temperature until a saturation density of 1.07 g/cc was achieved. In a clean vial, 0.104 grams of paraformaldehyde and 4.12 grams of the saturated NaBr/NMP solution plus an amount of DI water was mixed with a stir bar at 70° C. for 30 minutes. 3.2 grams of JEFFAMINE® T-5000 was added to the vial while still mixing at 7° C., and a timer was started to measure the gel time of the reaction. For these experiments, gel time refers to the time needed for a stable gel to form and impede the free spinning movement of the magnetic stir bar inside the vial, where the formed gel, magnetic stir bar, and vial spun together as a single unit. With no DI water added, gel time was about 40 seconds; with 0.25 mL (about 3.3 wt. %) of DI water added, gel time was about 1 minute and 19 seconds; with 0.50 mL (about 6.3 wt. %) of DI water added, gel time was about 4 minutes and 53 seconds; and for 1.00 mL (about 11.9 wt. %) of DI water added, gel time was about 32 minutes.

The formation of gels in the vials that had an addition of water clearly showed two separate and distinct phases present during and after the formation of the gel, a gel phase and a water/liquid aqueous phase, which were not miscible. The greater the addition of water, the greater was the phase difference along with an increase in gel time.

The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. “Optionally” and its various forms means that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur. The description includes instances where the event or circumstance occurs and instances where it does not occur. “Operable” and its various forms means fit for its proper functioning and able to be used for its intended use.

In the drawings and specification, there have been disclosed embodiments of compositions, systems, and methods for reversible aminal gels of the present disclosure along with 3D printing, and although specific terms are employed, the terms are used in a descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation. The embodiments of the present disclosure have been described in considerable detail with specific reference to these illustrated embodiments. It will be apparent, however, that various modifications and changes can be made within the spirit and scope of the disclosure as described in the foregoing specification, and such modifications and changes are to be considered equivalents and part of this disclosure.

Where the Specification or the appended Claims provide a range of values, it is understood that the interval encompasses each intervening value between the upper limit and the lower limit as well as the upper limit and the lower limit. The present disclosure encompasses and bounds smaller ranges of the interval subject to any specific exclusion provided. Where the Specification and appended Claims reference a method comprising two or more defined steps, the defined steps can be carried out in any order or simultaneously except where the context excludes that possibility. 

That claimed is:
 1. A method for producing a reversible hemiaminal or aminal gel composition for use in 3D printing, the method comprising the steps of: preparing a liquid precursor composition, the liquid precursor composition operable to remain in a first liquid state at about room temperature, where the liquid precursor composition comprises: an organic amine composition; an aldehyde composition; a polar aprotic organic solvent; and a carbon nanomaterial; heating the liquid precursor composition to transition from the first liquid state to a gel state; transitioning the gel state to a second liquid state; and 3D printing a solid carbon nanomaterial object comprising a solid printed gel from the second liquid state with a pre-determined orientation for the carbon nanomaterial.
 2. The method according to claim 1, where the step of transitioning the gel state to the second liquid state comprises hot-melting the gel state to a liquid hot-melt for use in a reservoir of a 3D printer.
 3. The method according to claim 2, where the step of 3D printing the solid carbon nanomaterial comprises printing the second liquid state to a cooled substrate material.
 4. The method according to claim 1, where the step of transitioning the gel state to the second liquid state comprises adding a metal salt composition to the gel state.
 5. The method according to claim 4, where the metal salt composition comprises a metal of valence 1, 2, 3, 4, or
 5. 6. The method according to claim 5, where the metal salt composition comprises at least one component selected from the group consisting of: aluminum chloride, ferrous chloride, and ferric chloride.
 7. The method according to claim 4, where the step of 3D printing the solid carbon nanomaterial includes heating the second liquid state.
 8. The method according to claim 1, further comprising the step of returning the solid printed gel to a removable liquid to be separated from the solid carbon nanomaterial object.
 9. The method according to claim 8, where the step of returning the solid printed gel to a removable liquid comprises the use of at least one component selected from the group consisting of: water; hydrochloric acid; an alkyl thiol compound; an alkylphosphine compound; N-methyl pyrrolidone (“NMP”); N-vinyl pyrrolidone (“NVP”); dimethylformamide (“DMF”); and dimethylsulfoxide (“DMSO”).
 10. The method according to claim 1, where the organic amine composition comprises a tris primary amine of polypropylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of between about 280 and about 100,000 Da.
 11. The method according to claim 1, where the organic amine composition comprises a bis primary amine of polyethylene glycol with an approximate molecular weight of between about 200 and about 100,000 Da.
 12. The method according to claim 1, where the aldehyde composition comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: formaldehyde, paraformaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde, phenyl acetate-HMTA, and mixtures thereof.
 13. The method according to claim 1, where the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of: N-alkylpyrrolidone, N,N′-dialkylformamide, dialkylsulfoxide, and mixtures thereof.
 14. The method according to claim 13, where the polar aprotic organic solvent comprises N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone.
 15. The method according to claim 5, where the metal salt composition comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of: iron(III), aluminum(III), and mixtures thereof.
 16. The method according to claim 7, where the solid carbon nanomaterial object comprising a solid printed gel comprises triazine-based molecules.
 17. The method according to claim 1, where a molar ratio of the organic amine composition to the aldehyde composition to the polar aprotic organic solvent is between about 1:2:1 and about 1:200:500.
 18. The method according to claim 5, where the metal salt is selected from the group consisting of: zinc bromide, calcium chloride dihydrate, calcium chloride hexahydrate, sodium bromide, calcium bromide, and combinations thereof.
 19. The method according to claim 18, where the metal salt comprises sodium bromide.
 20. The method according to claim 1, where the solid carbon nanomaterial object comprises a percolation network.
 21. The method according to claim 1, where the solid carbon nanomaterial object is selected from the group consisting of: an integrated circuit, a sensor element, an antenna, a high-surface-area catalyst scaffold, and an aerogel.
 22. The method according to claim 1, where the carbon nanomaterial comprises a carbon nanomaterial selected from the group consisting of: multi-wall carbon nanotubes, boron nitride nanotubes, graphene, graphite, single-wall carbon nanotubes, double-wall carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanohorns, glass fibers, alkali resistive glass fibers, and any combination of the foregoing.
 23. The method according to claim 1, where the step of heating occurs at between about 50° C. and about 100° C.
 24. The method according to claim 1, further comprising the step of diluting the liquid precursor composition with an aqueous composition comprising water to form a dilute liquid precursor composition.
 25. The method according to claim 1, further comprising the step of preparing a dilute liquid precursor composition, the dilute liquid precursor composition operable to remain in a first liquid state at about room temperature, where the dilute liquid precursor composition comprises: an organic amine composition; an aldehyde composition; a polar aprotic organic solvent; and an aqueous composition comprising water.
 26. The method according to claim 25, wherein the aqueous composition comprising water is between about 5 wt. % and about 50 wt. % of the dilute liquid precursor composition.
 27. The method according to claim 25, wherein the aqueous composition comprising water is between about 5 wt. % and about 30 wt. % of the dilute liquid precursor composition.
 28. The method according to claim 25, wherein the aqueous composition comprising water is between about 5 wt. % and about 15 wt. % of the dilute liquid precursor composition.
 29. The method according to claim 25, wherein the step of 3D printing includes co-extrusion of a first material prepared from the liquid precursor composition and a second material prepared from the dilute liquid precursor composition. 